Skip to main content

Full text of "The variation of animals and plants under domestication"

See other formats 


SEEN  BY 
PRESERVATION 
SERVICES 

DATE.^r].vl-.y. 


FOR  USE  IH 
UBRARY  ONLY 


Ipreecntct)  to 

^Cbe  Xibrar? 

of  tbe 

\Clniver9U?  of  Toronto 

bB 


Ite.K.C.Iibb 


1 

I 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


During  the  seven  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  pub- 
lication in  1868  of  the  first  edition  of  this  Work,  I have 
continued  to  atiend  to  the  same  subjects,  as  far  as  lay  in  my 
jDOwer;  and  I have  thus  accumulated  a large  body  of  addi- 
tional facts,  chiefly  through  the  kindness  of  many  corie- 
spondents.  Of  these  tacts  1 have  been  able  here  to  use  only 
those  which  seemed  to  me  the  more  important.  I have 
omitted  some  statements,  and  corrected  some  errors,  the  dis- 
covery of  which  I owe  to  my  reviewers.  Many  additional 
references  have  been  given.  The  eleventh  chapter,  and  that 
on  Pan  genesis,  are  those  which  have  been  most  altered,  parts 
having  been  re-modelled ; but  I will  give  a list  of  the  more 
important  alterations  for  the  sake  of  those  who  may  possess 
the  first  edition  of  this  book. 


contents 


INTRODUCTION 


Pago8  1-14 


CHAPTEIi  I. 

DOMESTIC  DOGS  AND  CATS. 

iiNCIENT  VARIETIES  OF  THE  DOG — RESEMBLANCE  OF  DOMESTIC  DOGS 
IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES  TO  NATIVE  CANINE  SPECIES — ANIMALS  NOT 

ACQUAINTED  WITH  aiAN  AT  FIRST  FEARLESS DOGS  RESEMBLING 

WOLVES  AND  JACKALS — HABIT  OF  BARKING  ACQUIRED  AND  LOST 
— FERAL  DOGS — TAN-COLOURED  EYE-SPOTS — PERIOD  OF  GESTATION 

OFFENSIVE  ODOUR — FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN  CROSSED  — 

DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  IN  PART  DUE  TO  DESCENT 
FROM  DISTINCT  SPECIES — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SKULL  AND  TEETH 
— DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  BODY,  IN  CONSTITUTION — FEW  IMPORTANT 
DIFFERENCES  HAVE  BEEN  FIXED  BY  SELECTION — DIRECT  ACTION 
OF  CLIMATE — WATER-DOGS  WITH  PALMATED  FEET — HISTORY  OF 
THE  CHANGES  WHICH  CERTAIN  ENGLISH  RACES  OF  THE  DOG  HAVE 
' GRADUALLY  UNDERGONE  THROUGH  SELECTION — EXTINCTION  OF  THE 
LESS  IMPROVED  SUB-BREEDS.  | 

CATS,  CROSSED  WHTH  SEVERAL  SPECIES— DIFFERENT  BREEDS  FOUND 
ONLY  IN  SEPARATED  COUNTRIES  — DIRECT  EFFECTS  OF  THE 
CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE  — FERAL  CATS  — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABI- 
LITY   15-50 


CHAPTER  II. 

HORSES  AND  ASSES. 

HORSE. — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL  VARIAEILIT? 
OF — DIRECT  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — CAN  WITHSTAND 
MUCH  COLD — BREEDS  MUCH  MODIFIED  BY  SELECTION— COLOURS  OF 


CONTENTS, 


v\ 


THE  HOUSE — DAPPLING — DARK  STRIPES  ON  THE  SPINE,  LEfiS, 
SHOULDERS,  AND  FOREHEAD — DUN-COLOURED  HORSES  MOST  FRE- 
QUENTLY STRIPED— STRIPES  PROBABLY  DUE  TO  REVERSION  TO  TUB 
PRIMITIVE  STATE  OF  THE  HORSE. 

A ES.  — BREEDS  OF— COLOUR  OF— LEG  AND  SHOULDER-STRIPES— 
SHOULDER-STRIPES  SO.METIMES  ABSENT,  SOMETIMES  FORKED. 

Pages  51-07 


CHAPTER  III. 

PIGS — CATTLE — SHEEP— GOATS. 

PIGS  BELONG  TO  TWO  DISTINCT  TYPES,  SUS  SCROFA  AND  INDICES — 

TORFSCHWEIN JAPAN  PIGS  — FERTILITY  OF  CROSSED  PIGS CHANGES 

IN  THE  SKULL  OF  THE  HIGHLY  CULTIVATED  RACES — CONVERGENCE 
OF  CHARACTER — GESTATION— SOLID-HOOFED  SWINE  — CURIOUS  AP- 
PENDAGES TO  THE  JAWS — DECREASE  IN  SIZE  OF  THE  TUSKS — 
YOIJnG  PIGS  LONGITUDINALLY  STRIPED — FERAL  PIGS— CROSSED 
BREEDS. 

CA'I'TLE. — ZEBU  A DISTINCT  SPECIES — EUROPEAN  CATTLE  PROBABLY 
DESCENDED  FROM  THREE  WILD  P'ORMS  — ALL  THE  RACES  NOW 
FERTILE  TOGETHER— BRITISH  PARK  CATTLE— ON  THE  COLOUR  OF 
THE  ABORIGINAL  SPECIES— CONSTITUTIONAL  DIFFERENCES — SOUTH 
AFRICAN  RACES — SOUTH  AMERICAN  RACES— NIATA  CATTLE — ORIGIN 
OF  THE  VARIOUS  RACES  OF  CATTLE. 

SHKEP. — ^^REMAEKABLE  RACES  OF — VARIATIONS  ATTACHED  TO  THE 
MALE  SEX — ADAPTATIONS  TO  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS  — GESTATION  OF 
— CHANGES  IN  THE  WOOL — SEMI-MONSTROUS  BREEDS. 

GOATS.— REMARKABLE  VARIATIONS  OF  G8-106 


CHAPTEE  lY. 

DOMESTIC  KABBITS. 

RABBITS  DESCENDED  FROM  THE  COMMON  WILD  RABBIT — 

ANCIENT  DOMESTICATION ANCIENT  SELECTION — LARGE  LOP-EARED 

RABBITS — VARIOUS  BREEDS — FLUCTUATING  CHARACTERS  — ORIGIN 
OF  THE  HIMALAYAN  BREED— CURIOUS  CASE  OF  INHERITANCE — 
FERAL  RABBITS  IN  JAMAICA  AND  THE  FALKLAND  ISLANDS — RORTO 
SANTO  FERAL  RABBITS  — OSTEOLOGICAL  CHARACTERS — SKm.L- 


CONTENTS, 


Vll 


.SKULL  OF  HALF-LOP  RABBITS  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  SKULL 

ANALAGOUS  TO  DIFFERENCES  IN  DIFFERENT  SPECIES  OF  HARES — 

VERTEBRA STERKUM SCAPULA — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE  ON 

THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  LIMBS  AND  BODY CAPACITY  OF  THE 

SKULL  AND  REDUCED  SIZE  OF  THE  BRAIN SUMMARY  ON  THE 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  DOMESTICATED  RABBITS  ..  ..  Pages  107-130 


CHAPTER  V. 

DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 

F:NUMERATI0N  and  description  of  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL 
VARIABILITY — VARIATIONS  OF  A REMARKABLE  NATURE— OSTEO- 
LOGICAL  CHARACTERS  : SKULL,  LOWER  JAW,  NUMBER  OF  VERTEBPwE 
— CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH  : TONGUE  WITH  BEAK  ; EYELIDS  AND 
NOSTRILS  WITH  WATTLED  SKIN — NUMBER  OF  WING-FEATHERS  AND 

LENGTH  OF  WING COLOUR  AND  DOWN WEBBED  AND  FEATHERED 

FEET— ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE — LENGTH  OF  FEET  IN  CORRE- 
LATION WITH  LENGTH  OF  -BEAK — LENGTH  OF  STERNUM,  SCAPULA, 
AND  FURCULUM — LENGTH  OF  WINGS — SUMMARY  ON  THE  POINTS 
OF  DIFFERENCE  IN  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS  137-188 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PIGEONS — continued. 

ON  THE  ABORIGINAL  PARENT-STOCK  OF  THE  SEVERAL  DOMESTIC  RACES 
— HABITS  OF  LIFE — WILD  RACES  OF  THE  ROCK-PIGEON — DOVECOT- 
PIGEONS — PROOFS  OF  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  FROM 
COLUMBA  LI  VIA — FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN  CROSSED — RE- 
VERSION TO  THE  PLUMAGE  OF  THE  WILD  ROCK-PIGEON — CIRCUM- 
STANCES FAVOURABLE  TO  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  RACES— AN- 
TIQUITY AND  HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES — MANNER  OF 
THEIR  FORMATION  — SELECTION  — UNCONSCIOUS  SELECTION  — CARE 
TAKEN  BY  FANCIERS  IN  SELECTING  THEIR  BIRDS —SLIG HTLY  DIF- 
FERENT STRAINS  GRADUALLY  CHANGE  INTO  WELL-MARKED  BREEDS 

EXTINCTION  OF  INTERMEDIATE  FORMS  — CERTAIN  BREEDS  REMAIN 

PERMANENT,  WHILST  OTHERS  CHANGE— SUMMARY  . . .,  18D-23H 


CONTENTS. 


nil 


CHAPTER  VTL 

FOWJ.S. 

BUIEF  DESCRirnONS  OF  THE  CHIEF  BREEDS— ARGUMENTS  IN  FA  YOU  U 
OF  THEIR  DESCENT  FROM  SEVERAL  SPECIES — ARGUMENTS  IN  FAVOi  li 
OF  ALL  THE  BREEDS  HAVING  DESCENDED  FROM  GALLUS  BANK.I\  A 
— REVERSION  TO  THE  PARENT-STOCK  IN  COLOUR  — ANALOGOUS 
VARIATIONS — ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  THE  FOWL — EXTERNAL  DIF- 
FERENCES BETWEEN  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS  — EGGS  — CHICKENS  — 
SECONDARY  SEXUAL  CHARACTERS — WING-  AND  TAIL-  FEATHERS, 
VOICE,  DISPOSITION,  ETC. — OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE 
SKULL,  VERTEBR.E,  ETC. — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE  ON  CERTAIN 
PARTS— CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH  Pages  236-280 


CHAPTEK  VIII. 

DUCK — GOOSE — PEACOCK — TURKEY — GUINEA-FOWL — 
CANARY-BIRD — GOLD-FISH — HIVE-BEES — SILK-MOTHS. 

DUCKS,  SEVERAL  BREEDS  OF — PROGRESS  OF  DOMESTICATION— ORIGIN 
OF  FROM  THE  COMMON  WILD-DUCK — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIF- 
■ FERENT  BREEDS— OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES— EFFECTS  OF  USE 
AND  DISUSE  ON  THE  LIMB-BONES. 

GOOSE,  ANCIENTLY  DOMESTICATED — LITTLE  VARIATION  OF SEBAS- 
TOPOL BREED.  • 

PEACOCK,  ORIGIN  OF  BLACK-SHOULDERED  BREED. 

TQPiKEY,  BREEDS  OF — CROSSED  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  SPECIES 
— EFFECTS  OF  CLIMATE  ON. 

GUINEA-FOWL,  CANARY-BIRD,  GOLD-FISH,  HIVE-BEP. 
SILK-MOTH"^,  SPECIES  and  breeds  of — anciently  domesticated 

—CARE  IN  THEIR  SELECTION — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIFFERENT 
RACES — IN  THE  EGG,  CATERPILLAR,  AND  COCOON  STATES— INHERIT- 
ANCE OF  CHARACTERS IMPERFECT  WINGS  -LOST  INSTINCTS — CORRE- 

lATED  CHARACTERS ' 2il0-321 


CONTENTS. 


is 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

CULTIVATED  PLANTS  I CEREAL  AND  CULINARY  PLANTS. 
PllELIMlNARY  REMARKS  on  the  number  and  parentage  of 

CULTIVATED  PLANTS — FIRST  STEPS  IN  CULTIVATION — GEOGRAPHICAL 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 

CEREAL! A.  — doubts  on  the  number  of  species. wheat: 

VARIETIES  OF  — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY  — CHANGED  HABITS — 

selection — ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  THE  VARIETIES. MAIEE  : GREAT 

VARIATION  OF — DIRECT  ACTION  OF  CLIMATE  ON. 

CULINARY  PLANTS. — cabbages  : varieties  of,  in  foliage  and 

STEMS,  but  not  IN  OTHER  PARTS — PARENTAGE  OF — OTHER  SPECIES 

OF  BRASSICA. -PEAS:  AMOUNT  OF  DIFFERENCE  IN  THE  SEVERAL 

KINDS,  CHIEFLY  IN  THE  PODS  AND  SEED — SOME  VARIETIES  CON- 
STANT, SOME  HIGHLY  VARIABLE — DO  NOT  INTERCROSS. BEANS. 

potatoes  : NUMEROUS  VARIETIES  OF — DIFFER  LITTLE  EXCEPT 

IN  THE  TUBERS — CHARACTERS  INHERITED  ..  ..  PagCS  322-351 


CHAPTEE  X. 

PLANTS  continued — fruits — ornamental  trees — 
FLOWERS. 

FRUITS — GRAPES — VARY  IN  ODD  AND  TRIFLING  PARTICULARS. 

MULBERRY — THE  ORANGE  GROUP — SINGULAR  RESULTS.  FROM  CROSS- 
ING.  PEACH  AND  NECTARINE  — BUD- VARIATION  — ANALOGOUS 

VARIATION — RELATION  TO  THE  ALMOND. APRICOT. PLUMS — 

VARIATION  IN  THEIR  STONES. CHERRIES— SINGULAR  VARIETIES 

OF. APPLE. PEAR. STRAWBERRY — INTERBLENDING  OF  THE 

ORIGINAL  FORMS. GOOSEBERRY — STEADY  INCREASE  IN  SIZE  OF 

THE  FRUIT — VARIETIES  OF. WALNUT. NUT. CUCURBIT A- 

CEOUS  PLANTS — WONDERFUL  VARIATION  OF. 

ORNAMENTAL  TREES— their  variation  in  degree  and  kind 

—ASH-TREE — SCOTCH-FIR — HAWTHORN. 

FLOWERS— MULTIPLE  ORIGIN  OF  MANY  KINDS — VARIATION  IN  CON- 
STITUTIONAL PECULIARITIES  — KIND  OF  VARIATION. ROSES  — 

SEVERAL  SPECIES  CULTIVATED. PANSY. DAHLIA.  HYA- 
CINTH— HISTORY  AND  VARIATION  OP  ..  ..  ..  352-396 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON  BUD-VAEIATION,  AND  ON  CERTAIN  ANOMALOUS  MODES 
OF  REPRODUCTION  AND  VARIATION. 

BITD-VARIATION  IN  THE  PEACH,  PLUM,  CHEERY,  VINE,  GOOSEBERRY, 
CURRANT,  AND  BANANA,  AS  SHOWN  BY  THE  MODIFIED  FRUIT — IN 

flowers:  camellias,  azaleas,  chrysanthemums,  roses,  etc, 
— on  the  running  of  the  colour  in  carnations  — bud- 
variations  IN  leaves — VARIATIONS  BY  SUCKERS,  TUBERS,  AND 
BULBS — ON  THE  BREAKING  OF  TULIPS — BUD-VARIATIONS  GRADUATE 
INTO  CHANGES  CONSEQUENT  ON  CHANGED  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — 
GRAFT-HYBRIDS — ON  THE  SEGREGATION  OF  THE  PARENTAL  CHARAC- 
TERS IN  SEMINAL  HYBRIDS  BY  BUD-VARIATION — ON  THE  DIRECT 
OR  IMMEDIATE  ACTION  OF  FOREIGN  POLLEN  ON  THE  MOTHER- 
PLANT — ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  A PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION  ON  THE 
SUBSEQUENT  OFFSPRING  OF  FEMALE  ANIMALS — CONCLUSION  - AND 

SUMMARY Pages  397-444 


CHAPTEK  XII. 

INHERITANCE. 

ft’ONDERFUL  NATURE  OF  INHERITANCE — PEDIGREES  OF  OUR  DOMESTI- 
CATED ANIMALS — INHERITANCE  NOT  DUE  TO  CHANCE — TRIFLING 
CHARACTERS  INHERITED — DISEASES  INHERITED — PECULIARITIES  IN 
THE  EYE  INHERITED — DISEASES  IN  THE  HORSE — LONGEVITY  AND 

VIGOUR — ASYMMETRICAL  DEVIATIONS  OF  STRUCTURE POLYDAC- 

TYLISM  AND  REGROWTH  OF  SUPERNUMERARY  DIGITS  AFTER  AM- 
PUTATION—CASES  OF  SEVERAL  CHILDREN  SIMILARLY  AFFECTED 
FROM  NON- AFFECTED  PARENTS  — WEAK  AND  FLUCTUATING  IN- 
HERITANCE : IN  WEEPING  TREES,  IN  DWARFNESS,  COLOUR  OF  FRUIT 
AND  FLOWERS — COLOUR  OF  HORSES — NON-INHERITANCE  IN  CERTAIN 
CASES— INHERITANCE  OF  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS  OVERBORNE  BY 
HOSTILE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE,  BY  INCESSANTLY  RECURRING  VARIA- 
BILITY, AND  BY  REVERSION— CONCLUSION  ..  ..  ..  ‘115-J73 


LIST  OP  ILLUSTRATIONS, 


I FIG.  litiC’S 

1.  Dun  Devonshire  Pony,  with  shoulder,  spinal,  and  leg 

STRIPES 59 

I 2.  Head  of  Japan  or  Masked  Pig  73 

3.  Head  of  Wild  Boar,  and  of  “ Golden  Days,”  a pig 

IL  OF  THE  Yorkshire  large  breed  ..  ..  75 

1 4.  Old  Irish  Pig  with  jaw-appendages  79 

11  5.  Half  lop  Rabbit  ..  ..  112 

lu  6.  Skull  of  Wild  Rabbit  122 

H 7.  Skull  of  large  Lop-eared  Rabbit 122 

n 8.  Part  of  Zygomatic  Arch,  showing  the  projecting  end 

If  OF  THE  malar  BONE  OF  THE  AUDITORY  MEATUS,  OF 

II  Rabbits..  ..  ' ..  123 

) 9.  Posterior  end  of  Skull,  showing  the  inter-parietal 

I BONE,  OF  Rabbits  ..  ..  123 

t 10.  Occipital  Foramen  of  Rabbits 123 

; * 11.  Skull  of  Halp-lop  Rabbit  124 

[ 12.  Atlas  Vertebra  of  Rabbits  126 

13.  Third  Cervical  Vertebra  of  Rabbits 127 

14.  Dorsal  Vertebra,  from  sixth  to  tenth  inclusive,  of 

Rabbits ..  ..  128 

15.  Terminal  Pone  of  Sternum  of  Rabbits 128 

■ 16.  Acromion  of  Scapula  of  Rabbits  129 

17.  The  Rock-Pigeon,  or  Columba  Livia  141 

I 18.  English  Pouter  144 

[ 19.  English  Carrier  147 

20.  English  Barb • 152 

, 21.  English  Fantail 154 

I 22.  African  Owl 157 

13.  Short-faced  English  Tumbler ..  160 


Xll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 


Pi.OS 


24.  Skulls  of  Pigeons,  viewed  laterally 

25.  Lower  Jaws  of  Pigeons,  seen  from  above  

2G.  Skull  op  Kunt,  seen  from  above  

27.  Lateral  view  of  Jaws  of  Pigeons  ..  

28.  ScAPULiE  OP  Pigeons  

29.  Furcula  of  Pigeons  

30.  Spanish  Fowl 

31.  Hamburgh  Fowl 

32.  Polish  Fowl 

33.  Occipital  Foramen  of  the  Skulls  of  Fowls 

34.  Skulls  of  Fowls,  viewed  from  above,  a little  ob- 

liquely   

35.  Longitudinal  sections  of  Skulls  of  Fowls,  viewed 

laterally  

36.  Skull  of  Horned  Fowl,  viewed  from  above,  a little 

OBLIQUELY  

37  Sixth  Cervical  Vertebras  of  Fowls,  viewed  laterally 

38.  Extremity  of  the  Furcula  of  Fowls,  viewed  later- 

ally   

39.  Skulls  of  Ducks,  viewed  laterally,  reduced  to  two- 

thirds  OF  the  natural  size 

40.  Cervical  Vertebra  of  Ducks,  of  natural  size  .. 

41.  Pods  of  the  Common  Pea 

42.  Peach  and  Almond  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed 

edgeways  

43.  Plum  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally 


174 

174 

176 

176 

238 

239 

240 
274 


275 


281 

282 

297 

298 
347 

358  i; 
366  ' 


( “ii  ) 


I 


TABLE  OF  PRINCIPAL  ADDITIONS  AND 
CORRECTIONS. 


First 

Second 

Eilition. 
VoL.  L 

Edition. 
VOL.  I. 

Page 

Page 

84 

35 

Dr.  Burt  Wilder’s  observations  on  the  brains  ol 
different  breeds  of  the  Dog. 

38 

40 

Degeneracy  of  Dogs  imported  into  Guinea. 

51 

54 

Difference  in  the  number  of  the  lumbar  vertebra)  in 
the  races  or  species  of  the  Horse. 

102 

106 

Hairy  appendages  to  the  throats  of  Goats. 

162 

170 

Sexual  differences  in  colour  in  the  domestic  Pigeon. 

217 

228 

Movements  like  those  of  the  Tumbler-pigeon, 
caused  by  injury  to  the  brain. 

290 

306 

Additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  Black-shouldered 
Peacock. 

296 

312 

Ancient  selection  of  Gold-  fish  in  China. 

314 

332 

Major  Hallett’s  ‘ Pedigree  Wheat.’ 

326  _ 

345 

The  common  radish  descended  from  Raphanus  raph- 
anistrum. 

374 

398 

Several  additional  cases  of  bud- variation  given. 

396 

420 

An  abstract  of  all  the  cases  recently  published  of 
graft-hybrids  in  the  potato,  together  with  a gene- 
ral summary  on  graft-hybridisation. 

399 

429 

An  erroneous  statement  with  respect  to  the  pollen 
of  the  date-palm  affecting  the  fruit  of  the  Cham- 
rerops  omitted. 

400 

430 

New  cases  of  the  direct  action  of  pollen  on  the 
mother-plant. 

404 

435 

Additional  and  remarkable  instances  of  the  action 
of  the  male  parent  on  the  future  progeny  of  the 

7ol.  ip 

female. 

11 

459 

An  erroneous  statement  corrected,  with  respect  to 
the  regrowth  of  supernumerary  digits  after  am- 
putation. 

( ) 


TABLE  OF  PIUNCIPAL  ADDITIONS  AND  COIUtECTIOiNS. 
{Continued.) 


First 

Second 

Fdilion. 
Voi,.  11. 

hdilion. 
VoL.  i. 

■ 

Page 

I'age 

28 

467 

Additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  inherited  effects 
of  circumcision. 

23 

467 

Dr,  Browii-Sequard  on  the  inherited  effects  of  opera- 
tions on  the  Guinea-pig. 

24 

469 

Other  cases  of  inherited  mutilations. 

Voi.  II. 

43 

17 

An  additional  case  of  reversion  due  to  a cross. 

72 

48 

Inheritance  as  limited  hy  sex. 

105 

83 

Two  varieties  of  maize  which  caimot  be  crossed. 

120 

99 

Some  additional  facts  on  the  advantages  of  cross-(‘^ 
breeding  in  animals.  ^1 

123 

103 

Discussion  on  the  effects  of  close  interbreeding  inj 
the  case  of  man.  1^2 

135 

to 

141 

117  1 
to  \ 

122  J 

Additional  cases  of  plants  sterile  with  pollen  from 

the  same  plant.  b 

149 

131 

Mr.  Sclater  on  the  infertility  of  animals  under  con-  F 
finement.  p 

152 

134 

The  Aperea  a distinct  species  from  the  Guinea-pig.  i 

230 

215 

Prof.  Jager  on  hawks  killing  light-coloured  pigeons.  1 

273 

262 

Prof.  Weismanu  on  the  effects  of  isolation  in  the  1 
development  of  species. 

281 

271 

The  direct  action  of  the  conditions  of  life  in  causing 
variation. 

317 

309 

Mr.  Komanes  on  rudimentary  parts. 

324 

316  ) 

1 

to 

to  > 

Some  additional  cases  of  correlated  variability. 

328 

327  1 

J 

339  i 

333 

On  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire’s  law  of  yoi  pour  sof.” 

357 

349  ] 

The  chapter  on  Pan  genesis  has  been  largely  altered 

to 

to  1 

and  re-modelled;  but  the  essential  principles  re- 

404 

1 

399  J 

main  the  same. 

\ 

VARIATION  OF  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS 


UNDER  DOMESTICATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  not  to  describe  all  the  many  races 
of  animals  which  have  been  domesticated  by  man,  and  of 
the  plants  which  have  been  cultivated  by  him;  even  if  I 
possessed  the  requisite  knowledge,  so  gigantic  an  undertaking 
would  be  here  superfluous.  It  is  my  intention  to  give  under  the 
head  of  each  species  only  such  facts  as  I have  been  able  to  col- 
lect or  observe,  showing  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  changes 
which  animals  and  plants  have  undergone  whilst  under  man’s 
dominion,  or  which  bear  on  the  general  principles  of  varia- 
tion. In  one  case  alone,  namely  in  that  of  the  domestic 
pigeon,  I will  describe  fully  all  the  chief  races,  their  history, 
th'e^mount  and  nature  of  their  differences,  and  the  probable 
steps  by  which  the}’  have  been  formed.  I have  selected  this 
case,  because,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  the  materials  are  better 
than  in  any  other ; and  one  case  fully  described  will  in  fact 
illustrate  all  others.  But  I shall  also  describe  domesticated 
rabbits,  fowls,  and  ducks,  with  considerable  fulness. 

The  subjects  discussed  in  this  volume  are  so  connected  that 
it  is  not  a little  difficult  to  decide  how  they  can  be  best  arranged. 
I have  determined  in  the  first  part  to  give,  under  the  heads  of 
the  various  animals  and  plants,  a large  body  of  facts,  some 
of  which  may  at  first  appear  but  little  related  to  our  subject, 
and  to  devote  the  latter  part  to  general  discussions.  When- 
ever I have  found  it  necessary  to  give  numerous  details,  in 
support  of  any  proposition  or  conclusion,  small  type  has  been 


2 


INTRODUCTION. 


used.  The  readei  will,  I think,  find  this  plan  a convenience^ 
for,  if  he  does  not  doubt  the  conclusion  or  care  about  the 
details,  he  can  easily  pass  them  over  ; yet  I may  be  permitted 
to  say  that  some  of  the  discussions  thus  printed  deserve 
attention,  at  least  from  the  professed  naturalist. 

It  may  be  useful  to  those  who  have  read  nothing  about 
Katural  Selection,  if  1 here  give  a brief  sketch  of  the  whole 
subject  and  of  its  bearing  on  the  origin  of  species.^  This  is 
the  more  desirable,  as  it  is  impossible  in  the  present  work  to 
avoid  many  allusions  to  questions  which  will  be  fully  discussed 
in  future  volumes. 

From  a remote  period,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  man  has 
subjected  many  animals  and  plants  to  domestication  or  culture. 
Man  has  no  power  of  altering  the  absolute  conditions  of  life: 
he  cannot  change  the  climate  of  any  country ; he  adds  no  new 
element  to  the  soil ; but  he  can  remove  an  animal  or  plant 
from  one  climate  or  soil  to  another,  and  give  it  food  on  which 
it  did  not  subsist  in  its  natural  state.  It  is  an  error  to  speak 
of  man  “ tampering  with  nature  ” and  causing  variability.  If 
a man  drops  a piece  of  iron  into  sulphuric  acid,  it  cannot  be 
said  strictly  that  he  makes  the  sulphate  of  iron,  he  only 
allows  their  elective  affinities  to  come  into  play.  If  organic 
beings  liad  not  possessed  an  inherent  tendency  to  vary,  man 
could  have  done  nothing.^  He  unintentionally  exposes  his 
animals  and  plants  to  various  conditions  of  life,  and  varia- 
bility supervenes,  which  he  cannot  even  prevent  or  checlc. 
Consider  the  simple  case  of  a plant  which  has  been  cultivated 
during  a long  time  in  its  native  country,  and  which  conse- 
quently has  not  been  subjected  to  any  change  of  climate.  It 
has  been  protected  to  a certain  extent  from  the  competing 
roots  of  plants  of  other  kinds ; it  has  generally  been  grown  in 
manured  soil ; but  probably  not  richer  than  that  of  many  an 


1 To  any  one  who  has  attentively 
read  my  ‘ Origin  of  Species  ’ this  In- 
troduction will  be  superfluous.  As  I 
stated  in  that  work  that  I should 
soon  publish  the  facts  on  which  the 
conclusions  given  in  it  were  founded, 
I here  beg  permission  to  remark  that 
the  great  delay  in  publishing  this 
first  work  has  been  caused  by  con- 


tinued ill-health. 

2 M.  Pouchet  has  recently  (‘  Plural- 
ity of  Races,’  Eng.  Translat.,  1864,  p. 
83,  &c.)  insisted  that  variation  under 
domestication  throws  no  light  on  the 
natural  modification  of  species.  I 
cannot  perceive  the  force  of  his  argu- 
ments, or,  to  speak  more  accurately, 
of  his  assertions  to  this  effect. 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


3 


alluvial  flat ; and  lastly,  it  has  been  exposed  to  changes  in  its 
conditions,  being  grown  sometimes  in  one  district  and  some- 
times in  another,  in  difterent  soils.  Under  such  circumstances, 
scarcely  a plant  can  be  named,  though  cultivated  in  the  rudest 
manner,  which  has  not  given  birth  to  several  varieties.  It  can 
hardly  be  maintained  that  during  the  many  changes  which  this 
earth  has  undergone,  and  during  the  natural  jnigrations  of 
plants  from  one  land  or  island  to  anothei-,  tenanted  by  different 
species,  that  such  plants  will  not  often  have  been  subjected  to 
changes  in  their  conditions  analogous  to  those  which  almost 
inevitably  cause  cultivated  plants  to  vary.  No  doubt  man 
selects  varying  individuals,  sows  their  seeds,  and  again  selects 
their  varying  offspring.  But  the  initial  variation  on  which 
man  works,  and  without  which  he  can  do  nothing,  is  caused 
by  slight  changes  in  the  conditions  of  life,  which  must  often 
have  occurred  under  nature.  Man,  therefore,  may  be  said  to 
have  been  trying  an  experiment  on  a gigantic  scale ; and  it 
is  an  experiment  which  nature  during  the  long  lapse  of  time 
has  incessantly  tried.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  principles 
of  domestication  are  important  for  us.  The  main  result 
is  that  organic  beings  thus  treated  have  varied  largely, 
and  the  variations  have  been  inherited.  This  has  ap- 
parently been  one  chief  cause  of  the  belief  long  held  by  some 
few  naturalists  that  species  in  a state  of  nature  undergo 
change. 

I shall  in  this  volume  treat,  as  fully  as  my  materials  permit, 
the  whole  subject  of  variation  under  domestication.  We  may 
thus  hope  to  obtain  some  light,  little  though  it  be,  on  the 
causes  of  variability, — on  the  laws  which  govern  it,  such  as  the 
direct  action  of  climate  and  food,  the  effects  of  use  and  disuse, 
and  of  correlation  of  growth, — and  on  the  amount  of  change  to 
which  domesticated  organisms  are  liable.  We  shall  learn 
something  of  the  laws  of  inheritance,  of  the  effects  of  crossing 
different  breeds,  and  on  that  sterility  which  often  supervenes 
when  organic  beings  are . removed  from  their  natural 
conditions  of  life,  and  likewise  when  they  are  too  closely 
interbred.  During  this  investigation  we  shall  see  that  the 
principle  of  Selection  is  highly  important.  Although  man  does 
not  cause  variability  and  cannot  even  prevent  it,  he  can  select. 


INTRODUCTION. 


i 

preserve,  and  aecnmnlate  the  variations  given  to  him  h}'  the 
hand  of  nature  almost  in  any  way  which  he  chooses ; and 
thus  he  can  certainly  produce  a great  result.  Selection  may 
he  folloAved  either  methodically  and  intentionally,  or  uncon- 
sciously and  unintentionally.  Man  may  select  and  preserve 
ca(;h  successive  A^ariation,  with  the  distinct  intention  of  im- 
proving and  altering  a breed,  in  accordance  with  a precon- 
oeived  idea;  and  by  thus  adding  up  variations,  often  so 
slight  as  to  be  imperceptible  by  an  uneducated  eye,  he  has 
effected  wonderful  changes  and  improvements.  It  can,  also, 
be  clearly  shown  that  man,  without  any  intention  or  thought 
of  improving  the  breed,  by  preserving  in  each  successiA^e 
generation  the  individuals  which  he  prizes  most,  and  by 
destroying  the  worthless  individuals,  slowly,  though  surely, 
induces  great  changes.  As  the  will  of  man  thus  comes 
into  play,  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that  domesticated 
breeds  show  adaptation  to  his  Avants  and  pleasures.  We 
can  further  understand  how  it  is  that  domestic  races  of 
animals  and  cultivated  races  of  plants  often  exhibit  an 
abnormal  character,  as  compared  with  natural  species ; for 
they  have  been  modified  not  for  their  own  benefit,  but  foi 
that  of  man. 

In  another  work  I shall  discuss,  if  time  and  health  permit, 
the  variability  of  organic  beings  in  a state  of  nature  ; namely, 
the  individual  • differences  presented  by  animals  and  plants, 
and  those  slightly  greater  and  generally  inherited  differences 
which  are  ranked  by  naturalists  as  varieties  or  geographical 
races.  We  shall  see  how  difficult,  or  rather  hoAv  impossible 
it  often  is,  to  distinguish  betAveen  races  and  sub-species,  as 
the  less  well-marked  forms  have  sometimes  been  denominated ; 
and  again  betAveen  sub-species  and  true  species.  I shall 
further  attempt  to  show  that  it  is  the  common  and  widely 
ranging,  or,  as  they  may  be  called,  the  dominant  species, 
which  most  frequently  A^ary ; and  that  it  is  the  large  and 
flourishing  genera  which  include  the  greatest  number  of 
A^arying  species.  Varieties,  as  Ave  shall  see,  may  justly  be 
called  incipient  species. 

But  it  may  be  urged,  granting  that  organic  beings  in  a state 
of  nature  jDresent  seme  varieties, — that  their  organization  is 


NATUEAL  SELECTION. 


b 


^ ill  some  slight  degree  plastic ; granting  that  many  animals 
and  plants  have  varied  greatly  under  domestication,  and  that 
man  by  his  power  of  selection  has  gone  on  accumulating  such 
variations  until  he  has  made  strongly  marked  and  firmly  in- 
herited races ; granting  all  this,  how,  it  may  be  asked,  have 
species  arisen  in  a state  of  nature  ? The  differences  between 
natural  varieties  are  slight ; whereas  the  differences  are  con- 
siderable between  the  species  of  the  same  genus,  and  great 
between  the  species  of  distinct  genera.  How  do  these  lesser 
differences  become  augmented  into  the  greater  difference? 
How  do  varieties,  or  as  I have  called  them  incipient  species, 
become  converted  into  true  and  well-defined  species  ? How  has 
each  new  species  been  adapted  to  the  surrounding  physical  con- 
ditions, and  to  the  other  forms  of  life  on  which  it  in  any  way 
depends  ? We  see  on  every  side  of  us  innumerable  adapta- 
tions and  contrivances,  which  have  justly  excited  the  highest 
admiration  of  every  observer.  There  is,  for  instance,  a fly 
(Cecidomyia)  ^ which  deposits  its  eggs  within  the  stamens 
of  a Scrophularia,  and  secretes  a poison  which  produces  a gall, 
on  which  the  larva  feeds ; but  there  is  another  insect  (Miso- 
campus)  which  deposits  its  eggs  within  the  body  of  the  larva 
within  the  gall,  and  is  thus  nourished  by  its  living  prey ; so 
that  here  a hymenojDterous  insect  depends  on  a dipterous 
ini,ect,  and  this  depends  on  its  power  of  producing  a monstrous 
growth  iu  a particular  organ  of  a particular  plant.  So  it  is,  in 
a more  or  less  plainly  marlsed  manner,  in  thousands  and  tens 
of  thousands  of  cases,  with  the  lowest  as  well  as  with  the  highest 
productions  of  nature. 

This  problem  of  the  conversion  of  varieties  into  species, — 
that  is,  the  augmentation  of  the  slight  differences  character- 
istic of  varieties  into  the  greater  differences  characteristic  of 
species  and  genera,  including  the  admirable  adaptations  of 
each  being  to  its  coinjolex  organic  and  inorganic  conditions  of 
life, — has  been  briefly  treated  in  my  ‘ Origin  of  Species.’  It 
was  there  shown  that  all  organic  beings,  without  exception, 
tend  to  increase  at  so  high  a ratio,  that  no  district,  no  station, 
not  even  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  or  the  whole  ocean, 

“ Leon  Dufour  in  ‘ Annales  des  Scienc.  Nat.’(3rLl  scries.  Zoolog.),  tom.  r.  p.  6. 


H 


INTRODUCTION. 


would  hold  the  progeny  of  a single  pair  after  a certain  nnmhei-^ 
of  generations.  The  inevitable  result  is  an  ever -recurrent 
Struggle  for  Existence.  It  has  truly  been  said  that  all 
nature  is  at  war ; the  strongest  ultimately  prevail,  the 
weakest  fail ; and  we  well  know  that  myriads  of  forms  have 
disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  If  then  organic  beings 
in  a state  of  nature  vary  even  in  a slight  degree,  owing  to 
changes  in  the  surrounding  conditions,  of  which  we  have 
abundant  geological  evidence,  or  from  any  other  cause ; if, 
in  the  long  course  of  ages,  inheritable  variations  ever  arise 
in  any  way  advantageous  to  any  being  under  its  excessively 
complex  and  changing  relations  of  life ; and  it  would  be  a 
strange  fact  if  beneficial  variations  did  never  arise,  seeing 
how  many  have  arisen  which  man  has  taken  advantage  of  for 
his  own  profit  or  pleasure  ; if  then  these  contingencies  ever 
occur,  and  I do  not  see  how  the  probability  of  their  occur- 
rence can  be  doubted,  then  the  severe  and  often-recurrent 
struggle  for  existence  will  determine  that  those  variations, 
however  slight,  which  are  favourable  shall  be  preserved 
or  selected,  and  those  wbicb  are  unfavourable  sball  be 
destroyed. 

This  preservation,  during  tlie  battle  for  life,  of  varieties 
which  possess  any  advantage  in  structure,  constitution,  or 
instinct,  I have  called  Natural  Selection ; and  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  has  well  expressed  the  same  idea  by  the  Survival  of 
the  Fittest.  The  term  “ natural  selection  ” is  in  some  respects 
a bad  one,  as  it  seems  to  imply  conscious  choice ; but  this 
will  be  disregarded  after  a little  familiarity.  No  one  objects 
to  chemists  speaking  of  elective  affinity ; ” and  certainly  an 
acid  lias  no  more  choice  in  combining  with  a base,  than  the 
conditions  of  life  have  in  determining  whether  or  not  a new 
form  be  selected  or  preserved.  The  term  is  so  far  a good 
one  as  it  brings  into  connection  the  production  of  domestio 
races  by  man’s  power  of  selection,  and  the  natural  preserva- 
tion of  varieties  and  species  in  a state  of  nature.  For  brevity 
sake  I sometimes  speak  of  natural  selection  as  an  intelligent 
))ower ; — in  the  same  way  as  astronomers  speak  of  the  attrac- 
tion of  gravity  as  ruling  the  movements  of  the  planets,  or 
as  agriculturists  speak  of  man  making  domestic  races  by  his 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


7 


i 

power  of  selection.  In  the  one  case,  as  in  the  other,  selection 
does  nothing  without  variability,  and  this  depends  in  some 
manner  on  the  action  of  the  surrounding  circumstances  Mn  the 
organism.  I have,  also,  often  personified  the  word  Nature ; 
for  1 have  found  it  difficult  to  avoid  this  ambiguity ; but 
I mean  by  nature  only  the  aggregate  action  and  product 
of  many  natural  laws, — and  by  laws  only  the  ascertained 
secpience  of  events. 

It  has  been  shown  from  many  facts  that  the  largest  amount 
of  life  can  be  supported  on  each  area,  by  great  diversification 
or  divergence  in  the  structure  and  constitution  of  its  inhabi- 
tants. We  have,  also,  seen  that  the  continued  production  ot 
new  forms  through  natural  selection,  which  implies  that  each 
new  variety  has  some  advantage  over  others,  inevitably 
leads  to  the  extermination  of  the  older  and  less  improved 
forms.  These  latter  are  almost  necessarily  intermediate  in 
structure,  as  well  as  in  descent,  between  the  last-produced 
forms  and  their  original  parent-species.  Now,  if  we  suppose 
a species  to  produce  two  or  more  varieties,  and  these  in 
the  course  of  time  to  produce  other  varieties,  the  principal 
of  good  being  derived  from  diversification  of  structure  will 
generally  lead  to  the  preservation  of  the  most  divergent 
varieties  ; thus  the  lesser  differences  characteristic  of  varieties 
come  to  be  augmented  into  the  greater  differences  character- 
istic of  species,  and,  by  the  extermination  of  the  older  inter- 
mediate forms,  new  species  end  by  being  distinctly  defined 
objects.  Thus,  also,  we  shall  see  how  it  is  that  organic 
beings  can  be  classed  by  what  is  called  a natural  method 
ill  distinct  groups— species  under  genera,  and  genera  under 
families. 

As  all  the  inhabitants  of  each  country  may  be  said,  owing 
to  their  high  rate  of  reproduction,  to  be  striving  to  increase 
in  numbers;  as  each  form  comes  into  competition  with  many 
other  forms  in  the  struggle  for  life,— for  destroy  any  one 
and  its  place  will  be  seized  by  others ; as  every  part  of  the 
organization  occasionally  varies  in  some  slight  degree,  and 
as  natural  selection  acts  exclusively  by  the  preservation  of 
variations  which  are  advantageous  under  the  excessively 
comjjlex  conditions  to  which  each  being  is  exposed,  no  limif 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


exists  to  the  .number,  singularity,  and  perfection  of  tlu 
contrivances  and  co-adaptations  which  may  thus  be  pro-' 
duced.  An  animal  or  a plant  may  thus  slowly  become 
related  in  its  structure  and  habits  in  the  inost  intricate 
manner  to  many  other  animals  and  plants,  and  to  tlie 
physical  conditions  of  its  home.  Variations  in  the  organiza- 
tion will  in  some  cases  be  aided  by  habit,  or  by  the  use  and 
disuse  of  parts,  and  they  will  be  governed  by  the  direct 
action  of  the  surrounding  physical  conditions  and  by 
correlation  of  growth. 

On  the  principles  here  briefly  sketched  out,  there  is  no 
innate  or  necessary  tendency  in  each  being  to  its  own  ad-  ' 
van  cement  in  the  scale  of  organization.  We  are  almost 
compelled  to  look  at  the  specialization  or  differentiation  of 
parts  or  organs  for  different  functions  as  the  best  or  even  sole 
standard  of  advancement ; for  by  such  division  of  labour  each 
function  of  body  and  mind  is  better  performed.  And  as 
natural  selection  acts  exclusively  through  the  preservation  of 
profitable  medications  of  structure,  and  as  the  conditions  of 
life  in  each  area  generally  become  more  and  more  complex 
from  the  increasing  number  of  different  forms  which  inhabit 
it  and  from  most  of  these  forms  acquiring  a more  and  more 
perfect  structure,  we  may  confidently  believe,  that,  on  the 
whole,  organization  advances.  IS^evertheless  a very  simj)le 
form  fitted  for  very  simple  conditions  of  life  might  remain 
for  indefinite  ages  unaltered  or  unimproved  ; for  what  would 
it  profit  an  infusorial  animalcule,  for  instance,  or  an  intestinal 
worm,  to  become  highly  organized  ? Members  of  a high  group 
might  even  become,  and  this  apparently  has  often  occurred, 
fitted  for  simpler  conditions  of  life  ; and  in  this  case  natural 
selection  would  tend  to  simplify  or  degrade  the  organization^ 
for  complicated  mechanism  for  simple  actions  would  be  useless 
or  even  disadvantageous. 

The  arguments  opposed  to  the  theory  of  Natural  Selection, 
have  been  discussed  in  my  ‘ Origin  of  Species,’  as  far  as  the 
size  of  that  work  permitted,  under  the  following  heads ; 
the  difficulty  in  understanding  how  very  simple  organs  have 
been  converted  by  small  and  graduated  steps  into  higiily 
p(U’fect  and  complex  organs ; the  marvellous  facts  of 


NATURAL  SELECTION. 


9 


Instinct ; the  whole  question  of  Hybridity ; and,  lastly,  the 
absence  in  our  known  geological  formations  of  innumerable 
links  connecting  all  allied  species.  Although  some  of  these 
difficulties  are  of  great  weight,  we  shall  see  that  many  of 
them  are  explicable  on  the  theory  of  natural  selection,  and  are 
otherwise  inexplicable. 

In  scientific  investigations  it  is  permitted  to  invent  any 
hypothesis,  and  if  it  explains  various  large  and  independent 
classes  of  facts  it  rises  to  the  rank  of  a well-grounded  theory. 
The  undulations  of  the  ether  and  even  its  existence  are  hypo- 
thetical, yet  every  one  now  admits  the  imdulatory  theory  of 
light.  The  principle  of  natural  selection  may  be  looked  at  as 
a mere  hypothesis,  but  rendered  in  some  degree  probable  by 
what  we  positively  know  of  the  variability  of  organic  beings 
in  a state  of  nature, — by  what  we  positively  know  of  the 
struggle  for  existence,  and  the  consequent  almost  inevitable 
preservation  of  favourable  variations, — and  from  the  analogical 
formation  of  domestic  races.  Kow  this  hypothesis  may  be 
tested, — and  this  seems  to  me  the  only  fair  and  legitimate 
manner  of  considering  the  whole  question, — by  trying 
whether  it  explains  several  large  and  independent  classes  of 
facts;  such  as  the  geological  succession  of  organic  beings, 
their  distribution  in  pa.st  and  present  times,  and  their  mutual 
affinities  and  homologies.  If  the  principle  of  natural  selection 
does  explain  these  and  other  large  bodies  of  facts,  it  ought  to 
be  received.  On  the  ordinary  view  of  each  species  having 
been  independently  created,  we  gain  no  scientific  explanation 
of  any  one  of  these  facts.  We  can  only  say  that  it  has  so 
pleased  the  Creator  to  command  that  the  past  and  present 
inhabitants  of  the  world  should  appear  in  a certain  order  and 
in  certain  areas;  that  He  has  impressed  on  them  the  most 
extraordinary  resemblances,  and  has  classed  them  in  groups 
subordinate  to  groups.  But  by  such  statements  we  gain  no 
new  knowledge ; we  do  not  connect  together  facts  and  laws  ; 
we  explain  nothing. 

It  was  the  consideration  of  such  large  groups  of  facts 
as  these  which  first  led  me  to  take  up  the  present  subject. 
When  I visited  during  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Beagle,  the 
Galapagos  Archipelago,  situated  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  about 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


500  miles  from-  South  America,  I found  myself  surroiimled 
by  peculiar  species  of  birds,  reptiles,  and  plants,  existing 
nowhere  else  in  the  world.  Yet  they  nearly  all  bore  an 
American  stamp.  In  the  song  of  the  mocking- thrush,  in  the 
harsh  cry  of  the  carrion-hawk,  in  the  great  candlestick-liko 
opuntias,  I clearly  perceived  the  neighbourhood  of  America, 
though  the  islands  were  separated  by  so  many  miles  of  oc^iaii 
from  the  mainland,  and  differed  much  in  their  geological 
constitution  and  climate.  Still  more  surprising  was  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  separate  island  in  this 
small  archipelago  were  specifically  different,  though  most 
closely  related  to  each  other.  1 he  archipelago,  with  its 
innumerable  craters  and  bare  streams  of  lava,  appeared  to 
be  of  recent  origin ; and  thus  I fancied  myself  brought  near 
to  the  very  act  of  creation.  I often  asked  myself  how  these 
many  peculiar  animals  and  plants  had  been  produced : the 
simplest  answer  seemed  to  be  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
several  islands  had  descended  from  each  other,  undergoing 
modification  in  the  course  of  their  descent ; and  that  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  archipelago  were  descended  from  those  of 
the  nearest  land,  namely  America,  whence  colonists  would 
naturally  have  been  derived.  But  it  long  remained  to  me  an 
inexplicable  problem  how  the  necessary  degree  of  modification 
could  have  been  effec  ted,  and  it  would  have  thus  remained 
for  ever,  had  I not  studied  domestic  productions,  and  thus 
acquired  a just  idea  of  the  power  of  Selection.  As  soon  as  1 
had  fully  realized  this  idea,  I saw,  on  reading  Malthus  on 
Population,  that  Natural  Selection  was  the  inevitable  result 
of  the  rapid  increase  of  all  organic  beings  ; for  I was  prepared 
to  appreciate  the  struggle  for  existence  by  having  long 
studied  the  habits  of  animals. 

Before  visiting  the  Galapagos  I had  collected  many  animals 
w h list  travelling  from  north  to  south  on  both  sides  of  America, 
and  everywhere,  under  conditions  of  life  as  different  as  it  is 
possible  to  conceive.  American  forms  were  met  with — species 
re]fiacing  species  of  the  same  peculiar  genera.  'Phus  it  was 
when  the  Cordilleras  were  ascended,  or  the  thick  tropical 
forests  penetrated,  or  the  fresh  waters  of  America  searched. 
Subsequently  I visited  other  countries,  which  in  all  then 


NATUKAL  SELECTION. 


11 


^ conditions  of  life  were  incomparably  more  like  parts  of  South 
America,  than  the  different  parts  of  that  continent  are  to 
ca(;h  other ; yet  in  these  countries,  as  in  Australia  or  Southern 
Africa,  the  traveller  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  entire 
difference  of  their  productions.  Again  the  reflection  was 
forced  on  ine  that  community  of  descent  from  the  early 
inliabitants  of  South  America  would  alone  explain  the  w^o 
prevalence  of  American  types  tlironghout  that  immense 
area. 

To  exhume  with  one’s  own  hands  the  bones  of  extinct  and 
gigantic  quadrupeds  brings  the  whole  question  of  the 
succession  of  species  vividly  before  one’s  mind ; and  I found 
in  South  America  great  pieces  of  tesselated  armour  exactly 
like,  but  on  a magnificent  scale,  that  covering  the  pigmy 
armadillo;  I had  found  great  teeth  like  those  of  the  living 
sloth,  and  bones  like  those  of  the  cavy.  An  analogous  suc(  es- 
sionof  allied  forms  had  been  previously  observed  in  Australia. 
Here  then  we  see  the  prevalence,  as  if  by  descent,  in  time  as 
in  splice,  of  the  same  types  in  the  same  areas  ; and  in  neither 
case  does  the  similarity  of  the  conditions  by  any  means  seem 
sufficient  to  account  for  th*:^  similarity  of  the  forms  of  life. 
It  is  notorious  that  the  fossil  remains  of  closely  consecutix^e 
formations  are  closely  allied  in  structure,  and  we  can  at  once 
understand  the  fact  if  they  are  closely  allied  by  descent. 
The  succession  of  the  many  distinct  species  of  the  same 
genus  throughout  the  long  series  of  geological  formations 
seems  to  have  been  unbroken  or  cotitinnous.  New  species 
come  in  gradually  one  by  one.  Ancient  and  extinct  forms  of 
life  are  often  intermediate  in  character,  like  the  words  of  a 
dead  language  with  respect  to  its  several  offshoots  or  living 
tongues.  All  these  facts  seemed  to  me  to  point  lo  descent 
with  modifii  ation  as  the  means  of  production  of  new 
species. 

The  innumerable  past  and  present  inhabitants  of  the 
world  are  con ne  ted  together  by  the  most  singular  and 
complex  affinities,  and  can  be  classed  in  groups  under  groups, 
in  the  same  manner  as  varieties  can  be  classed  under  species 
and  sub-varieties  under  varieties,  but  with  much  higher 
grades  of  difference.  These  complex  affinities  and  the  rules 


12 


INTRODUCTION. 


for  classification,  receive  a rational  explanation  on  the  thcor’/i 
of  descent,  combined  with  the  principle  of  natural  selectioi/, 
which  entails  divergence  of  character  and  the  extinction  of 
intermediate  forms.  How  inexplicable  is  the  similar  pattern 
of  the  hand  of  a man,  the  foot  of  a dog,  the  wing  of  a bat, 
the  flipper  of  a seal,  on  the  doctrine  of  independent  acts  of 
creation!  how  simply  explained  on  the  principle  of  the 
na'ural  selection  of  successive  s'ight  var  aliens  in  the 
diverg  ng  descendants  from  a single  progenitor!  So  it  is 
wifh  certain  parts  or  organs  in  the  same  individual  animal 
or  plant,  for  instance,  the  jaws  and  legs  of  a crab,  or  the 
petals,  stamens,  and  p’sfils  of  a flower.  During  the  many 
changes  to  which  in  the  conrse  of  time  organic  beings  have 
been  subjected,  certain  organs  or  parts  have  occasionally 
become  at  first  of  little  use  and  ultimately  superfluous ; and 
the  retention  of  such  parts  in  a rudimentary  and  useless 
condition  is  intelligible  on  the  theory  of  descent.  It  can  be 
shown  that  modifications  of  structure  are  generally  inherited 
by  the  offspring  at  the  same  age  at  which  each  successive 
variation  appeared  in  the  parents  ; it  can  further  be  shown 
that  variations  do  not  commonly  supervene  at  a very  early 
period  of  embryonic  growth,  and  on  these  two  principles  we 
can  understand  that  most  wonderful  fact  in  the  whole  circuit 
of  natural  history,  namely,  the  close  similarity  of  the  embryos 
within  the  same  great  class — for  instance,  those  of  mammals, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fish. 

It  is  the  consideration  and  explanation  of  such  facts  as 
these  which  has  convinced  me  that  the  theory  of  descent 
with  modification  by  mean  of  natural  selection  is  in  the 
main  true.  These  facts  have  as  yet  received  no  explanation 
on  the  theory  of  independent  Creation;  they  cannot  be 
groupt-d  together  under  one  point  of  view,  but  each  has  to  be 
considered  as  an  ultimate  fact.  As  the  first  origin  of  life  on 
this  earth,  as  well  as  the  continued  life  of  each  individual,  is 
at  present  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  science,  I do  not  wish  to 
lay  much  stress  on  the  greater  simplicity  of  the  view  of  a few 
forms  or  of  onl37’  one  form  having  been  originally  created, 
instead  of  innumerable  miraculous  creations  having  been 
accessary  at  innumerable  periods ; though  this  more  ciinple 


NATUEAL  SELECTION. 


13 


j I 

vi«w  accords  well  with  Manpertuis’s  philosophical  axiom  of 
“ le -st  actio-'.” 

Ill  considering  how  far  the  theory  of  natural  selectit.n 
may  be  extended, — that  is,  in  determining  from  how  many 
progenitors  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  hnve  descended, — 
we  may  conclude  that  at  least  all  the  members  of  the  same 
class  have  descended  from  a single  ancestor.  A number  of 
organic  beinas  are  included  in  the  sane  class,  because  they 
present,  independently  of  their  habits  of  life,  the  same  funda- 
mental type  of  structure,  and  because  they  graduate  into  each 
other.  Moreover,  members  of  the  same  class  can  in  most 
cases  be  shown  to  be  closely  alike  at  an  early  embryonic  age. 
These  facts  can  be  explained  on  the  belief  of  their  descent  from 
a common  form  ; therefore  it  may  be  safely  admitted  that  all 
the  members  of  the  same  class  are  descended  from  one  pro- 
genitor. But  as  the  members  of  quite  distinct  clas-es  have 
something  in  common  in  structure  and  much  in  common  in 
constitution,  analogy  would  lead  us  one  step  further,  and  to 
infer  as  probable  that  all  living  creatures  are  descended  from 
a single  prototype. 

I hope  that  the  reader  will  pause  before  coming  to  any 
final  and  hostile  conclusion  on  the  theory  of  natural  selection. 
The  reader  may  consult  my  ‘ Origin  of  Species’  for  a general 
sketch  of  the  whole  subject ; but  in  that  work  he  has  to  take 
many  statements  on  trust.  In  considering  the  theory  of 
natural  selection,  he  will  assuredly  meet  with  weighty 
difficulties,  but  these  difficulties  relate  chiefly  to  subjects — ■ 
such  as  the  degree  of  perfection  of  the  geological  record,  the 
means  of  distribution,  the  possibility  of  transitions  in  organs, 
&o. — on  which  we  are  confessedly  ignorant;  nor  do  we  know 
how  ignorant  we  are-  If  we  are  much  more  ignorant  than 
is  generally  supposed,  most  of  these  difficulties  wholly 
disappear.  Let  the  leader  reflect  on  the  difficulty  of  looking 
at  whole  classes  of  facts  from  a new  point  of  view.  Le^  him 
observe  how  slowly,  but  surely,  the  noble  views  of  Lyell  on 
the  gradual  changes  now  in  progress  on  the  earth’s  surface 
have  been  accepted  as  sufficient  to  account  for  all  that  we  see 
in  its  past  history.  The  present  action  of  natural  selection 
may  seem  more  or  less  probable ; but  I believe  in  the  truth  of 


14 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  theory,  because  it  collects,  under  one  point  of  view,  and 
gives  a rational  explanation  of,  many  apparently  independent 
classes  of  facts.^ 


4 In  treating  the  several  subjects 
included  in  the  present  and  my  other 
works  I have  continually  been  led  to 
ask  for  information  from  many  zoolo- 
gists, botanists,  geologists,  breeders 
of  animals,  and  horticulturists,  and  I 
have  invariably  received  from  them 
the  most  generous  assistance.  With- 
out such  aid  I could  have  effected 
little.  I have  repeatedly  applied 
for  information  and  specimens  to 


foreigners,  and  to  British  merchants 
and  officers  of  the  Government  re- 
siding in  distant  lands,  and,  with  the 
rarest  exceptions,  I have  received 
prompt,  open-handed,  and  valuable 
assistance.  I cannot  express  too 
strongly  my  obligations  to  the  many 
persons  who  have  assisted  me,  and 
who,  I am  convinced,  would  be 
equally  willing  to  assist  others  in 
any  scientific  investigation. 


Chap.  I. 


DOGS:  TEEIR  PARENTAGE. 


15 


CHAPTER  I. 

DOMESTIC  DOGS  AND  CATS. 

ANCIEXT  VARIETIES  OF  THE  DOG — KESEMBLAISICE  OF  DOMESTIC  DOGS  IN  VARIOUS 
COUNTRIES  TO  NATIVE  CANINE  SPECIES — ANIMALS  NOT  ACQUAINTED  WITH 

MAN  AT  FIRST  FEARLESS DOGS  RESEMBLING  WOLVES  AND  JACKALS — HABIT 

or  BARKING  ACQUIRED  AND  LOST — FERAL  DOGS — TAN-COLOURED  EYE-SPO^  .j 
— PERIOD  OF  GESTATION — OFFENSIVE  ODOUR — FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN 
CROSSED — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  IN  PART  DUE  TO  DESCENT 
FROM  DISTINCT  SPECIES — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SKULL  AND  TEETH — DIFFER- 
ENCES IN  THE  BODY,  IN  CONSTITUTION — FEW  IMPORTANT  DIFFERENCES 
HAVE  BEEN  FIXED  BY  SELECTION — DIRECT  ACTION  OF  CLIMATE — WATER- 
DOGS  WITH  PALMATED  FEET — HISTORY  OF  THE  CHANGES  WI}l(:!H  CERTAIN 
ENGLISH  RACES  OF  THE  DOG  HAVE  GRADUALLY  UNDERGONE  THROUGH 
SELECTION — EXTINCTION  OF  THE  LESS  IMPROVED  SUB-BREEDS. 

CATS,  CROSSED  WITH  SEVERAL  SPECIES — DIFFERENT  BREE'  S FOUND  ONLY  IN 
SEPARATED  COUNTRIES — DIRECT  EFFECTS  OF  THE  COFTDITIONS  OF  LIFE — 
FERAL  CATS — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY. 

Thu,  first  and  chief  point  of  interest  in  this  chapter  is,  whether 
thenuinerons  domesticated  varieties  of  the  dog  have  descended 
from  a single  wild  species,  or  from  several.  Some  authors 
believe  that  all  have  descended  from  the  wolf,  or  from  the 
jackal,  or  from  an  unknown  and  extinct  species.  Others  again 
believe,  and  this  of  late  has  been  the  favourite  tenet,  that  they 
have  descended  from  several  species,  extinct  and  recent,  more 
or  less  commingled  together.  VV e shall  probably  never  be  able 
to  ascertain  their  origin  with  certainty.  Palaeontology  ^ does 
not  throw  much  light  on  the  question,  owing,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  the  close  similarity  of  the  skulls  of  extinct  as  well 
as  living  wolves  and  jackals,  and  owing,  on  the  other  hand,  to 


* Owen,  ‘ British  Fossil  Mammals,* 
|>p.  123  to  133.  Pictet’s  ‘ Traite  de 
I’al.,’  185  E tom.  i.  p.  202.  De  Blain- 
ville,  in  his  ‘ Osteographie,  Canidas,’ 
p.  142,  has  largely  discussed  the 
whole  subject,  and  concludes  that 
the  extinct  parent  of  all  domesticated 
dogs  came  nearest  to  the  wolf  iu 
organization,  and  to  the  jackal  hi 


habits.  See  also  Boyd  Dawkins, 
‘Cave  Hunting,*  1874,  p.  131,  &c., 
and  his  other  publications.  Jeitteles 
has  discussed  in  great  detail  the 
character  of  the  breeds  of  pre-historic 
dogs  : ‘ Die  vorgeschichtlichen  Alter- 
thiimer  der  Stadt  Olmlitz,’  IJ.  Theii, 
1372,  p.  44  to  onj. 


DOGS. 


Chap.  L 


16  . 


the  great  dissimilarity  of  the  skulls  of  the  sevoial  breeds  of 
the  domestic  dogs.  It  seems,  however,  that  remains  have 
been  found  in  the  later  tertiary  deposits  more  like  those  of  a 
large  dog  than  of  a wolf,  which  favours  the  belief  of  De 
Blainville  that  our  dogs  are  the  descendants  of  a single  ex- 
tinct species.  On  the  other  hand,  some  authors  go  so  far  as 
to  assert  that  every  chief  domestic  breed  must  have  had  its 
wild  prototype.  This  latter  view  is  extremely  improbable ; 
it  allows  nothing  for  variation ; it  passes  over  the  almost 
monstrous  character  of  some  of  the  breeds ; and  it  almost  ne 
ei.3sarily  assumes  that  a large  number  of  species  have  become 
extinct  since  man  domesticated  the  dog ; whereas  we  plainly 
see  that  wild  members  of  the  dog-family  are  extirpated 
by  human  agency  with  much  difficulty;  even  so  recently 
as  1710  the  wolf  existed  in  so  small  an  island  as  Ireland. 

Idle  reasons  which  have  led  various  authors  to  infer  that 
our  dogs  have  descended  from  more  than  one  wild  species  are 
as  follows.^  Firstly,  the  great  difference  between  the  several 
breeds ; but  this  will  appear  of  comparatively  little  weight, 
after  we  shall  have  seen  how  great  are  the  differences  between 
the  several  races  of  various  domesticated  animals  which  cer- 
tainly have  descended  from  a single  parent-form.  Secondly, 
the  more  important  fact,  that,  at  the  most  anciently  known 
historical  periods,  several  breeds  of  the  dog  existed,  very 
unlike  each  other,  and  closely  resembling  or  identical  with 
breeds  still  alive. 

We  will  briefly  run  back  through  the  historical  records. 


* Pallas,  I believe,  originated  this 
doctrine  in  ‘Act.  Acad.  St.  Peters- 
biirgh,’  1780,  Part  ii.  Ehrenberg  has 
advocated  it,  as  may  be  seen  in  De 
Blainville’s  ‘ O.-teographie,’  p.  79.  It 
has  been  carried  to  an  extreme  extent 
by  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  in  the 
‘ Naturalist  Library,’  vols.  ix.  and  x. 
;Mr.  W.  C.  Martin  adopts  it  in  his 
excellent  ‘History  of  the  Dog,’  1845  ; 
as  does  Dr.  Morton,  as  well  as  Nott 
and  Gliddon,  in  the  United  States. 
Prof.  Low,  in  his  ‘ Domesticated 
Animals,’  1845,  p.  666,  comes  to  this 
same  conclusion.  No  one  has  argued 
on  this  side  with  more  clearness  and 


force  than  the  late  James  Wilson,  of 
Edinburgh,  in  various  papers  read 
before  the  Highland  Agricultural  and 
Wernerian  Societies.  Isidore  Geoffroy 
Saint-Hilaire  (‘  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  1860, 
tom.  iii  p.  107),  though  he  believes 
that  most  dogs  have  descended  from 
the  jackal,  yet  inclines  to  the  belief 
that  some  are  descended  from  the 
wolf.  Prof.  Gervais  (‘  Hist.  Nat. 
Mamm.’  1855,  tom.  ii.  p.  69,  referrir  j 
to  the  view  that  all  the  domest  a 
races  are  the  modified  descendants  of  a 
single  species,  after  a long  discussion, 
says,  “Cette  opinion  est,suivant  nous 
du  moins,  la  moins  probable.” 


C"hap.  1. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


17 


The  materials  are  remarkably  deficient  between  the  four- 
teenth century  and  the  Roman  classical  period.^  At  this 
latter  period  various  breeds,  namely  hounds,  house-dogs,  lap 
dogs,  &c.,  existed ; but,  as  Dr.  Walther  has  remarked,  it  is 
impossible  to  recognise  the  greater  number  with  any  cer- 
tainty. Youatt,  however,  gives  a drawing  of  a beautiful 
sculpture  of  two  greyhound  puppies  from  the  V ilia  of  An- 
toninus. On  an  Assyrian  monument,  about  640  B.&f  an 
enormous  mastiff^  is  figured ; and  according  to  Sir  H. 
Rawlinson  (as  I was  informed  at  the  British  Museum), 
similar  dogs  are  still  imported  into  this  same  country.  I 
have  looked  through  the  magnificent  works  of  Lepsius  and 
Rosellini,  and  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  from  the  fourth 
to  the  twelfth  dynasties  (i.e.  from  about  3400  b.c.  to  2100  b.c.) 
several  varieties  of  the  dog  are  represented  ; most  of  them  are 
allied  to  greyhounds  ; at  the  later  of  these  periods  a dog 
resembling  a hound  is  figured,  with  drooping  ears,  but  with 
a longer  back  and  more  pointed  head  than  in  our  hounds. 
There  is,  also,  a turnspit,  with  short  and  crooked  legs,  closely 
resembling  the  existing  variety  ; but  this  kind  of  monstrosity 
is  so  common  with  various  animals,  as  with  the  aneon  sheep, 
and  even,  according  to  Eengger,  with  jaguars  in  Paraguay, 
that  it  would  be  rash  to  look  at  the  monumental  animal  as 
the  parent  of  all  our  turnspits : Colonel  Sykes  ^ also  has 
described  an  Indian  pariah  dog  as  presenting  the  same 
monstrous  character.  The  most  ancient  dog  represented  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments  is  one  of  the  most  singular;  it 
resembles  a grejdiound,  but  has  long  pointed  ears  and  a short 
curled  tail ; a closely  allied  variety  still  exists  in  Northern 


® Berjeau,  ‘The  Varieties  of  the 
Dog  ; in  old  Sculptures  and  Pictures,’ 
1863,  ‘Der  Hund,’  von  Dr.  F.  L. 
Walther,  Giessen,  1817,  s.  48, : this 
author  seems  carefully  to  have  studied 
all  classical  works  on  the  subject. 
See  also  Volz,  ‘ Beitrage  zur  Kultur- 
geschichte,’  Leipzig,  1852,  s.  115 
‘Youatt  on  the  Dog,’  1845,  p.  6.  A 
very  full  histoi  y is  given  by  De 
Blainville  in  hks  ‘ Osteographie, 
Canidse.’ 

^ J have  seen  drawings  of  this  dog 
8 


from  the  tomb  of  the  son  of  Esar 
Haddor.,  and  clay  models  in  the 
British  Museum.  Nott  and  Gliddon, 
in  their  ‘Types  of  Mankind,’  1854,  p 
393,  give  a copy  of  these  drawings 
This  dog  has  been  called  a Thibetax. 
mastiff,  but  Mr.  H.  A.  Oldfield,  who 
is  familiar  with  the  so-called  Thil  el 
mastiff,  and  has  examined  the  draw- 
ings in  the  British  Museum,  informs 
me  that  he  considers  them  different. 

® ‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,*  July  12th,; 
1831. 


18 


DOGS. 


(Jhap.  I 


Africa;  for  Mr.  E.  Vernon  Ilarcourt*^  states  that  the  Ai*ah 
boar-hound  is  “ an  eccentric  hieroglyphic  animal,  ouch  as 
Cheops  once  hunted  with,  somewhat  resembling  the  rcjugh 
Scotch  deer-hound  ; their  tails  are  curled  tight  round  on  theii 
backs,  and  their  ears  stick  out  at  right  angles.”  With  this 
most  ancient  variety  a pariah-like  dog  coexisted. 

Wo  thus  see  that,  at  a period  between  four  and  five  thou- 
sand years  ago,  various  breeds,  viz.  pariah  dogs,  greyhounds, 
common  hounds,  mastiffs,  house-dogs,  lapdogs,  and  turnspits, 
existed,  more  or  less  closely  resembling  our  present  breeds. 
But  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  that  any  of  these  ancient 
dogs  belonged  to  the  same  identical  sub-varieties  with  our 
present  dogs.'^  As  long  as  man  was  believed  to  have  existed 
on  this  earth  only  about  6000  years,  this  fact  of  the  great 
diversity  of  the  breeds  at  so  early  a period  was  an  argument 
of  much  weight  that  they  had  proceeded  from  several  wild 
sources,  for  there  would  not  have  been  sufficient  time  for  their 
divergence  and  modification.  But  now  that  we  know,  from 
the  discovery  of  flint  tools  embedded  with  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals  in  districts  which  have  since  undergone  great 
geographical  changes,  that  man  has  existed  for  an  incom- 
parably longer  period,  and  bearing  in  mind  that  the  most 
barbarous  nations  possess  domestic  dogs,  the  argument  from 
insufficient  time  falls  away  greatly  in  value. 

Long  before  tbe  period  of  any  historical  record  the  dog  was 
domesticated  in  Europe.  In  the  Danish  Middens  of  the  Neo- 
lithic or  Newer  Stone  period,  bones  of  a canine  animal  are 
imbedded,  and  Steenstriip  ingeniously  argues  that  these  be- 
longed to  a domestic  dog  ; for  a very  large  proportion  of  the 
bones  of  birds  preserved  in  the  refuse  consists  of  long  bones, 
which  it  was  found  on  trial  dogs  cannot  devour.®  This  ancient 


® ‘Sporting  in  Algeria,’  p.  51. 

’’  Berjeau  gives  f'ac-similes  of  the 
Egyptian  drawings.  Mr.  C.  L.  Martin 
in  his  ‘History  of  the  Dog,’  18+5, 
copies  several  figures  from  the  Egypt- 
ian monuments,  and  speaks  with 
ranch  confidence  with  respect  to  their 
identity  with  still  living  dogs.  Messrs. 
Notttind  Gliddon  (‘Types  of  Mankind, 
1854,  p.  388)  give  still  more  numerous 
Hguros.  Mr.  Gliddon  asserts  that  a 


curl-tailed  greyhound,  like  that  repre- 
sented on  the'  most  ancient  monu- 
ments, is  common  in  Borneo;  but 
the  Rajah,  Sir  J.  Brooke,  informs  me 
that  no  such  dog  exists  thei’e. 

* These,  and  the  following  facts  on 
the  Danish  remains,  are  taken  from 
M.  Morlot’s  most  interesting  memoir 
in  ‘ Soc.  Vaudoise  des  Sc.  Nat.’  tom.  vi.. 
1860,  pp.  281,  299,  320. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


19 


dog  was  succeeded  in  Denmark  during  the  Bronze  period  by 
a larger  kind,  presenting  certain  difierences,  and  this  again 
during  the  Iron  period,  by  a still  larger  kind.  In  Switzer- 
land, we  hear  from  Prof.  Putiioeyer,^  that  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period  a domesticated  dog  of  middle  size  existed,  which 
in  its  skull  was  about  equally  remote  from  the  wolf  and  jackal, 
and  partook  of  the  characters  of  our  hounds -and  setters  or 
spaniels  (Jagdhund  und  Wachtelhund).  Kiitimeyer  insists 
strongly  on  the  constancy  of  form  during  a very  long  period 
of  time  of  this  the  most  ancient  known  dog.  During  the 
Bronze  period  a larger  dog  appeared,  and  this  closely  re- 
sembled in  its  jaw  a dog  of  the  same  age  in  Denmark. 
Remains  of  two  notably  distinct  varieties  of  the  dog  were 
found  by  Schmerling  in  a cave  but  their  age  cannot  be 
positively  determined. 

The  existence  of  a single  race,  remarkably  constant  in  form 
during  the  whole  Neolithic  period,  is  an  interesting  fact  in 
contrast  with  what  we  see  of  the  changes  which  the  races 
underwent  during  the  period  of  the  successive  Egyptian 
monuments,  and  in  contrast  with  our  existing  dogs.  The 
character  of  this  animal  during  the  Neolithic  period,  as  given 
by  Rutimcjmr,  supj)orts  De  Blainville’s  view  that  our  varieties 
have  descended  from  an  unknown  and  extinct  form.  But  we 
should  not  forget  that  we  know  nothing  with  respect  to  the 
antiquity  of  man  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  The 
succession  of  the  difierent  kinds  of  dogs  in  Switzerland  and 
Denmark  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  immigration  of  conquer- 
ing tribes  bringing  with  them  their  dogs;  and  this  view 
accords  with  the  belief  that  different  .wild  canine  animals 
were  domesticated  in  different  regions.  Independently  of 
the  immigration  of  new  races  of  man,  we  know  from  the 
wide-spread  presence  of  bronze,  composed  of  an  alloy  of  tin, 
how  much  commerce  there  must  have  been  throughout 
Europe  at  an  extremely  remote  period,  and  dogs  would  then 
probably  have  been  bartered.  At  the  present  time,  amongst 
the  savages  of  the  interior  of  Guiana,  the  Taruma  Indians 

» ‘Die  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,’  1861,  s.  117,  162. 

10  De  Blaliiville,  ‘ Osteographie,  Canidse.’ 


20 


DOGS. 


(Jhap.  1 


are  considered -the  best  trainers  of  dogs,  and  possess  a Jargo 
breed  which  they  barter  at  a high  price  with  otlici 
tribes. 

The  main  argument  in  favour  of  the  several  breeds  of  the 
dog  being  the  descendants  of  distinct  wild  stocks,  is  their 
resemblance  in  various  countiies  to  distinct  species  still 
existing  there.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  com- 
parison between  the  wild  and  domesticated  animal  has  been 
made  but  in  few-  cases  with  sufficient  exactness.  Before 
entering  on  details,  it  will  be  well  to  show  that  there  is  no 
a priori  difficulty  in  the  belief  that  several  canine  species 
have  been  domesticated.  Members  of  the  dog  family  in- 
habit liearly  the  whole  world;  and  several  species  agree 
pretty  closely  in  habits  and  structuie  with  our  several 
domesticated  dogs.  Mr.  Galton  has  shown  how  fond 
savages  are  of  keeping  and  taming  animals  of  all  kinds. 
Social  animals  are  the  most  easily  subjugated  by  man, 
and  several  species  of  Canidae  hunt  in  packs.  It  deser\  es 
notice,  as  bearing  on  other  animals  as  well  as  on  the 
dog,  that  at  an  extremely  ancient  period,  when  man  first 
entered  any  country,  the  animals  living  there  would  have 
felt  no  instinctive  or  inherited  fear  of  him,  and  would  come 
cpiently  have  been  tamed  far  more  easily  than  at  piesent 
For  instance,  when  the  Falkland  Islands  were  fi.rst  visited  by 
man,  the  large  wolf-like  dog  (Canis  antarcticus)  fearlessly 
came  to  meet  Byron’s  sailors,  who,  mistaking  this  ignorant 
curiosity  for  ferocity,  ran  into  the  water  to  avoid  them;  even 
recently  a man,  by  holding  a piece  of  meat  in  one  hand  and  a 
knife  in  the  other,  c(juld  sometimes  stick  them  at  night.  On 
an  island  in  the  Sea  of  Aral,  when  first  discovered  by 
Butakoff,  the  saigak  antelopes,  which  aie  “generally  very 
timid  and  watchful,  aid  not  fly  from  us,  but  on  the  contiary 
looked  at  us  with  a sort  of  curiosit}^”  So,  again,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mauritius,  the  manatee  was  not  at  first  in  the 
least  afraid  of  man,  and  thus  it  has  been  in  several  quarters 
of  the  wojld  with  seals  and  the  morse.  I have  elsewhere 

Sir  R.  Schomburgk  has  giA^en  me  xiii.,  1843,  p.  65. 
inrormation  on  this  head.  See  also  ‘ Domestication  of  Animals : 

'Journal  of  R.  Geograph.  Soc.’  vol.  Ethnological  Soc.,  Dec.  22nd,  1863. 


Uhap.  1. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


21 


sbown  how  slowly  the  native  birds  of  several  islands  have 
acquired  and  inherited  a salutary  dread  of  man  : at  the  Gala- 
pagos Archipelago  I pushed  witli  the  inr.zzle  of  my  gun 
hawks  from  a branch,  and  held  out  a pitcher  of  water  for 
other  birds  to  alight  on  and  drink.  Quadrupeds  and  birds 
which  have  seldom  been  disturbed  by  man,  dread  him  ho 
more  than  do  our  English  birds,  the  cows,  or  horses  grazing 
in  the  fields.  ^ 

It  is  a more  important  consideration  that  several  canine 
species  evince  (as  will  be  shown  in  a future  chapter)  no 
strong  repugnance  or  inability  to  breed  under  confinement ; 
and  the  incapacity  to  breed  under  confinement  is  one  of  the 
commonest  bars  to  domestication.  Lastly,  savages  set  the 
highest  value,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapter  on  Selection,  on 
dogs : even  half-tamed  animals  are  highly  useful  to  them  : 
the  Indians  of  North  America  cross  their  half-wild  dogs  with 
wolves,  and  thus  render  them  even  wilder  than  before,  but 
bolder;  the  savages  of  Guiana  catch  and  partially  tanre  and 
use  the  whelps  of  two  wild  species  of  Canis,  as  do  the  savages 
of  Australia  those  of  the  wild  Dingo.  Mr.  Philip  King  in- 
forms me  that  he  once  trained  a wild  Dingo  pupjry  to  drive 
cattle,  and  found  it  very  useful.  From  these  several  con- 
siderations we  see  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  believing  that 
man  miglit  have  domesticated  various  canine  species  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  It  would  indeed  have  been  a strange  fact 
if  one  species  alone  had  been  domesticated  throughout  the 
world. 

We  will  now  enter  into  details.  The  accurate  and  sagacious 
Eichardson  says,  “ The  resemblance  between  the  Northern 
American  wolves  (Cams  lupus,  var.  occidentalis)  and  the 
domestic  dogs  of  the  Indians  is  so  great  that  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  wolf  seems  to  be  the  only  difference.  I have 
iirore  than  once  mistaken  a band  of  wolves  for  the  dogs  of 
a party  of  Indians ; and  the  howl  of  the  animals  of  both 
species  is  prolonged  so  exactly  in  the  same  key  that  even  the 

**  ‘ Journal  of  Researclies,’  &c.,  of  the  autolope,  see  ‘ Journal  R/iytil 

1845,  p.  393.  With  respect  to  Cam's  Geograph.  Soc.,’  vol.  xxiii.  p,  94. 

antaretkus,  see  p.  193.  For  the  r/ise 


DOGS. 


OlIAI>.  I 


practised  ear  of  tlio  Indian  fails  at  times  to  discriminate  them.' 
He  adds  that  the  more  northern  Escpiimanx  dogs  are  not  only 
extremely  like  the  grey  wolves  of  the  Ai-ctic  circle  in  form 
and  colour,  bnt  also  nearly  equal  them  in  size.  Dr.  Kano 
has  often  seen  in  his  teams  of  sledge- dogs  the  oblique  eye 
(a  character  on  which  some  naturalists  lay  great  stress),  the 
drooping  tail,  and  scared  look  of  the  wolf.  In  disposition 
the  Esquimaux  dogs  differ  little  from  wolves,  and,  according 
to  Dr,  Hayes,  they  are  capable  of  no  attachment  to  man,  and 
are  so  savage  that  when  hungry  they  will  attack  even  their 
masters.  According  to  Kane  they  readily  become  feral. 
Their  affinity  is  so  close  with  wolves  that  they  frequently 
cross  with  them,  and  the  Indians  take  the  whelps  of  wolves 
“ to  improve  the  breed  of  their  dogs,”  The  half-bred  wolves 
sometimes  (Lamare-Picquot)  cannot  be  tamed,  “ though  this 
case  is  rare  but  they  do  not  become  thoroughly  well  broken 
in  till  the  second  or  third  generation.  These  facts  show  that 
there  can  be  but  little,  if  any,  sterility  between  the  Esqui- 
maux dog  and  the  wolf,  for  otherwise  they  would  not  be  used 
to  improve  the  breed.  As  Dr.  Hayes  says  of  these  dogs, 
“ reclaimed  wolves  they  doubtless  are.” 

North  America  is  inhabited  by  a second  kind  of  wolf,  the 
prairie-wolf  (Canis  latrans),  which  is  now  looked  at  by  all 
naturalists  as  specifically  distinct  from  the  common  wolf;  and 
is,  according  to  Mr,  J.  K.  Lord,  in  some  respects  intermediate 
in  habits  bet  veen  a wolf  and  a fox.  Sir  J.  Richardson,  after 
describing  the  1 1 are  Indian  dog,  which  differs  in  many  respects 
from  the  Esquimaux  dog,  says,  “It  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  prairie-wolf  that  the  Esquimaux  dog  does  to  the  great 


The  authorities  for  the  foregoing 
statements  are  as  follow  : — Richard- 
son, in  ‘ Fauna  Boreali-Americana,’ 
18‘i9,  pp.  64,  75;  Dr.  Kane,  ‘Arctic 
Explorations,’  1856,  vol,  i.  pp.  398, 
455  ; Dr.  Hayes,  ‘ Arctic  Boat  Jour- 
ney,’ 1860,  p.  167.  yrankiin’s 
‘ Narrative,’  vol.  i.  p.  269,  gives  the 
case  of  three  whelps  of  a black  wolf 
being  carried  away  by  the  Indians. 
Parry,  Richardson,  and  others,  give 
accounts  of  woives  and  dogs  naturally 


crossing  in  the  eastern  parts  of  North 
America.  Seeman,  in  his  ‘ Voyage  of 
H.M.S.  FTerald,  1853,  vol.  ii.  pi  2G, 
says  the  wolf  is  often  caught  by  the 
Esquimaux  for  the  purpose  of  crossi?'.g 
with  their  dogs,  and  thus  adding  to 
their  size  and  strength.  M.  Lamare- 
Picquot,  in  ‘Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d’Accli- 
mat.’  tom.  vii.,  I860,  p.  148,  gives  a 
good  account  of  the  half-bred  L'qu)-' 
maux  dogs. 


Chap.  L 


THEIK  PAEENTAGE 


23 


grey  wolf.”  He  could,  m fact,  detect  no  marked  differeiic.o 
betv/een  them ; and  Messrs.  Nott  and  Gliddon  giTc  additional 
details  showing  their  close  resemblance.  The  dogs  derived  from 
the  above  two  aboriginal  sources  cross  together  and  with  the 
wild  wolves,  at  least  with  the  G.  occidenialis,  and  with  European 
dogs.  In  Florida,  according  to  Bartram,  the  black  wolf-dog 
of  the  Indians  differs  in  nothing  from  the  wolves  of  that 
country  except  in  barking.^^ 

Turning  to  the  southern  parts  of  the  new  world,  Columbus 
found  two  kinds  of  dogs  in  the  West  Indies  ; and  Fernandez 
describes  three  in  Mexico : some  of  these  native  dogs  were 
dumb — that  is,  did  not  bark.  Jn  Guiana  it  has  been  known 
since  the  time  of  Buffon  that  the  natives  cross  their  dogs 
with  an  aboriginal  species,  apparently  the  Canis  cancrivorus. 
Sir  R.  Schomburgk,  who  has  so  carefully  explored  these 
regions,  writes  to  me,  “ I have  been  repeatedly  told  by  the 
Arawaak  Indians,  who  reside  near  the  coast,  that  they  cross 
their  dogs  with  a wild  species  to  improve  the  breed,  and 
individual  dogs  have  been  shown  to  me  which  certainly 
resembled  the  G.  cancrivorus  much  more  than  the  common 
breed.  It  is  but  seldom  that  the  Indians  keep  the  G.  cancri- 
vorus for  domestic  purposes,  nor  is  the  Ai,  another  species 
of  wild  dog,  and  which  I consider  to  be  identical  with  the 
Dusicijon  silvestris  of  H.  Smith,  now  much  used  by  the  Are- 
cunas  for  the  purpose  of  hunting.  The  dogs  of  the  I'aruma 
Indians  are  quite  distinct,  and  resemble  Buffon’s  St.  Domingo 
greyhound.”  It  thus  appears  that  the  natives  of  Guiana  have 
partially  domesticated  two  aboriginal  species,  and  still  cross 
their  dogs  with  them  ; these  two  species  belong  to  a quite  dif- 
ferent type  from  the  North  American  and  European  wolves.  A 


^ ' ‘ Fauna  Boreal  i-A  m e r i c a n a,’ 
})p.  73,  78,  80.  Nott  and 
Gliddcn,  ‘ Types  of  Mankind,’  p.  383. 
The  naturalist  and  traveller  Bartram 
IS  quoted  by  Hamilton  Smith, in  ‘Na- 
turalist Lib.,’  vol.  X.  p.  15(5.  A Mexican 
domestic  dog  seems  also  to  resemble  a 
wild  dog  of  the  same  country  ; but 
this  may  be  the  prairie-wolf.  Another 
capable  judge,  Mr.  J.  K.  Lord  (‘Tlio 
Naturalist  in  Vancouver  Island,’  18(5(3, 


vol.  ii.  p.  218),  says  that  the  Indian 
dog  of  the  Spokans,  near  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  “is  beyond  all  question 
nothing  more  than  a tamed  Cayote  or 
prairie-wmlf,”  or  Canis  latrans. 

1 quote  this  from  Mr.  R.  Hill’.s 
excellent  account  of  the  Alco  oi 
domestic  dog  of  Mexico,  iu  Gosso’s 
‘ Naturalist’s  Sojourn  in  J.amaica, 
1851,  p.  329. 


2t 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I 


careful  observer,  Eeiigger,^'^  gives  reasons  for  believing  that  a 
hairless  dog  was  domesticated  when  America  was  first  visited 
by  Europeans : some  of  these  dogs  in  Paraguay  are  still  dumb, 
and  d’schudi  states  that  they  suffer  from  cold  in  the  Cor- 
dillera. This  naked  dog  is,  however  quite  distinct  fromthaf 
found  preserved  in  the  ancient  Peruvian  burial-places,  and  de- 
scribed by  Tschudi,  under  the  name  of  Canis  ingce,  as  with- 
standing cold  well  and  as  barking.  It  is  not  known  whether 
these  two  distinct  kinds  of  dog  are  the  descendants  of  native 
species,  and  it  might  be  argued  that  when  man  first  migrated 
into  America  he  brought  with  him  from  the  Asiatic  continent 
dogs  which  had  not  learned  to  bark ; but  this  view  does  not 
seem  probable,  as  the  natives  along  the  line  of  their  march  from 
the  north  reclaimed,  as  we  have  seen,  at  least  two  N.  American 
species  of  Canidai. 

d’'urning  to  the  Old  World,  some  European  dogs  closely 
resemble  the  wolf ; thus  the  shepherd  dog  of  the  plains  of 
Hungary  is  white  or  reddish-brown,  has  a sharp  nose,  short, 
erect  ears,  shaggy  coat,  and  bush}^  tail,  and  so  much  resembles 
a wolf  that  Mr.  Paget,  who  gives  this  desci  ijDtion,  says  he  has 
known  a Hungarian  mistake  a wolf  for  one  of  his  own  dogs. 
J eitteles,  also,  remarks  on  the  close  similarity  of  the  Hungarian 
dog  and  wolf.  Shepherd  dogs  in  Italy  must  anciently  have 
closely  resembled  wolves,  for  Columella  (vii.  12)  advises  that 
white  dogs  be  kept,  adding,  “ pastor  album  probat,  ne  pro  lupo 
canem  feriat.”  Several  accounts  have  been  given  of  dogs  and 
wolves  crossing  naturally ; and  Pliny  asserts  that  the  Gauls 
tied  their  female  dogs  in  the  woods  that  they  might  cross 
with  wolves. The  European  wolf  differs  slightly  from  that 
of  North  America,  and  has  been  ranked  by  many  naturalists 
as  a distinct  species.  The  common  wolf  of  India  is  also  by 
some  esteemed  as  a third  species,  and  here  again  we  find  a 


’’  ‘ Natiirgeschichte  der  Sauge- 
Ihiere  von  Paraguay,’  1830,  s.  151. 

Quoted  in  Humboldt’s  ‘Aspects 
cf  Nature’  (Eng.  trans.),  vol.  i.  p. 
108. 

*9  Paget’s  ‘ Travels  in  Hungary  and 
Transylvania,’  \-ol.  i.  p.  501.  Jeitteles, 
‘F.auna  Huiigarias  Sup^rioris,’  1862,  s. 
12.  See  Pliny,  ‘ Hist,  of  the  World  ’ 


(Eng.  transl.),  8th  book,  ch.  xl.,  about 
the  Gauls  crossing  their  dogs.  See  also 
Aristotle,  ‘Hist,  i^nimal.’  lib.  viii.  c. 
28.  For  good  evidence  about  wolves 
and  dogs  naturally  crossing  near  the 
Pyrenees,  see  M.  Mauduyt,  ‘Du  Loup 
et  de  ses  Races,’  Poitiers,  1851;  also 
Hal  las,  in  ‘Acta  Acad.  St.  Petersbuf  gb, 
1780,  part  ii.  p.  94. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


CHAr.  L 


25 


marked  resemblance  between  the  pariah  dogs  of  certain 
districts  of  India  and  the  Indian  wolf.^*^ 

With  respect  to  Jackals,  Isidore  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire 
says  that  not  one  constant  difference  can  be  pointed  out  between 
their  structure  and  that  of  the  smaller  races  of  dogs.  They 
agree  closely  in  habits  : jackals,  when  tamed  and  called  by 
their  master,  v-'ag  their  tails,  lick  his  hands,  crouch,  and  throw 
them^selves  or  their  backs ; they  smell  at  the  tails  of  other 
dogs,  and  void  their  urine  sideways ; they  roll  on  carrion  or 
on  animals  which  they  have  killed  ; and,  lastly,  when  in  high 
spirits,  they  run  round  in  circles  or  in  a figure  of  eight,  with 
their  tails  between  their  legs.^^  A number  of  excellent 
naturalists,  from  the  time  of  Giildenstadt  to  that  of  Ehren- 
berg,  Hemprich,  and  Cretzschmar,  have  expressed  themselves 
in  the  strongest  terms  with  respect  to  the  resemblance  of  the 
half-domestic  dogs  of  Asia  and  Egypt  to  jackals.  M.  Nord- 
mann,  fijr  instance,  says,  “ Les  chiens  d’Awhasie  ressemblent 
etonnamment  a des  chacals.”  Ehrenberg  asserts  that  the 
domestic  dogs  of  Lower  Egypt,  and  certain  mummied  dogs, 
have  for  their  wild  type  a species  of  wolf  (G.  lupaster')  of  the 
country;  whereas  the  domestic  dogs  of  Nubia  and  certain 
other  mummied  dogs  have  the  closest  relation  to  a wild  species 
of  the  same  country,  viz.  C.  sahhar,  which  is  only  a form  of 
the  common  jackal.  Pallas  asserts  that  jackals  and  dogs 
sometimes  naturally  cross  in  the  East;  and  a case  is  on 
record  in  Algeria.^^  The  greater  number  of  naturalists 
divide  the  jackals  of  Asia  and  Africa  into  several  species,  but 
come  few  rank  them  all  as  one. 


J give  this  on  excellent  authority, 
namely,  Mr.  Blyth  (under  the  signa- 
ture of  Zoo[)hilus),  in  the  ‘ Indian 
Sporting  Review,’  Oct.  1856,  p.  134. 
Mr.  Blyth  states  that  he  was  struck 
with  the  resemblance  between  a brush- 
tailed race  of  pariah-dogs,  north-west 
of  Cawnpore,  and  the  Indian  wolf.  He 
gives  corroborative  evidence  with 
respect  to  the  dogs  of  the  valley  of 
the  Nerbudda. 

For  numerous  and  interesting 
details  on  the  resemblance  of  dogs  and 
jackals,  see  Isid.  Geoffroy  St.-Hi'aire, 
‘Hisl.  Nat.  1860,  tom.  iii.  p.  101. 


See  also  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammiferes, 
par  Prof.  Gervais,  1855,  tom.  ii.  p.  60. 

22  Also  Giildenstadt,  ‘ Nov.  Conr- 
ment.  Acad.  Petrop.,’  tom.  xx.,  pro 
anno  1775,  p.  449.  Also  Salvin,  ijj 
‘Land  and  Water,’  Oct.  1869. 

23  Quoted  by  De  Blainville  in  his 
‘ Osteographie,  Canidae,’  pp.  79,  98. 

2^  See  Pallas,  in  ‘Act.  Acad.  St. 
Petersburgh,’  1780,  part  ii.  p.  91- 
For  Algeria,  see  Isid,  Geoffroy  St.- 
Hilaire,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p. 
177.  In  both  countries  it  is  the  male 
jackal  which  pairs  with  lemale 
domestic  dogs. 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I 


2(i 


I may  add  that  the  domestic  dogs  on  the  coast  of  Guinea 
are  fox-like  animals,  and  are  durnb.'^^  On  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  between  lat.  4'’  and  6^^  south,  and  about  ten  days’ journey 
in  the  interior,  a semi-domestic  dog,  as  the  Eev.  S.  Erhardt 
informs  me,  is  kept,  which  the  natives  assert  is  derived  from 
a similar  wild  animal.  Lichtenstein  says  that  the  dogs  of 
the  Bosjemans  present  a striking  resemblance  even  in  colour 
(excepting  the  black  stripe  down  the  back)  with  the  C.  rneso- 
melas  of  South  Africa.  Mr.  E.  Layard  informs  me  that  he 
has  seen  a Caftre  dog  which  closely  resembled  an  Esquimaux 
dog.  In  Australia  flie  Dingo  is  both  domesticated  and  wild  ; 
though  this  animal  may  have  been  introduced  aboriginally 
by  man,  yet  it  must  be  considered  as  almost  an  endemic  form, 
for  its  remains  have  been  found  in  a similar  state  of  preser- 
vation and  associated  with  extinct  mammals,  so  that  its 
introduction  must  have  been  ancient. 

From  this  resemblance  of  the  half-domesticated  dogs  in 
several  countries  to  the  wild  species  still  living  there, — from 
the  facility  with  which  they  can  often  be  crossed  together, — 
from  even  half-tamed  animals  being  so  much  valued  by 
savages,  — and  from  the  other  circumstances  previously  re- 
marked on  which  favour  their  domestication,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  domestic  dogs  of  the  world  are  descended 
from  two  well-defined  species  of  wolf  (viz.  C.  lupus  and 
C.  latrans),  and  from  two  or  three  other  doubtful  species 
fnamely,  the  European,  Indian,  and  North  African  wolves) ; 
from  at  least  one  or  two  South  American  canine  species ; 
from  several  races  or  species  of  jackal ; and  perhaps  from 
one  or  more  extinct  species.  Although  it  is  possible  or  even 
probable  that  domesticated  dogs,  introduced  into  any  country 
and  bred  there  for  many  generations,  might  acquire  some  of 
the  characters  proper  to  the  aboriginal  Canidse  of  the  country, 
we  can  hardly  thus  account  for  introduced  dogs  having  given 


26  John  Barhnt’s  ‘ Description  of 
the  Coast  of  Guinea  in  1746.’ 

26  ‘ Travels  in  South  Africa,’  voL  ii. 

p.  272. 

27  Selwyn,  Geology  of  Victoria ; 
‘ Journal  of  Geolog.  Soc.,’  vol.  xiv., 
1858,  p.  536,  and  vol.  xvi.,  1860,  p. 
148 ; and  Prof.  M‘Coy,  in  ‘ Annals  and 


Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.’  (3rd  series),  vol. 
ix.,  1862,  p.  147.  The  Dingo  dilfers 
from  the  dogs  of  the  central  Polyne- 
sian islands.  Dielfenbach  remarks 
(‘Travels,’  vol.  ii.  p.  45)  that  the 
native  New  Zealand  dog  also  differs 
from  the  Dingo. 


VUM\  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


27 


rise  to  two  breeds  in  the  same  country,  resembling  two  of  its 
aboriginal  species,  as  in  the  above-given  cases  of  Guiana  and 
of  North  America.2^ 

It  caunot  be  objected  to  the  view  of  several  canine  species 
having  been  anciently  domesticated,  that  these  animals  are 
tamed  with  difficulty  : facts  have  been  already  given  on  this 
liead,  but  I may  add  that  the  young  of  the  Canis  primcevus  of 
India  were  tamed  by  Mr.  Hodgson,^®  and  became  as  sensible 
of  caresses,  and  manifested  as  much  intelligence,  as  any 
sporting  dog  of  the  same  age.  There  is  not  much  difference, 
as  we  have  already  shown  and  shall  further  see,  in  habits 
between  the  domestic  dogs  of  the  North  American  Indians  and 
the  wolves  of  that  country,  or  between  the  Eastern  pariah 
dogs  and  jackals,  or  between  the  dogs  which  have  run  wild 
in  various  countries  and  the  several  natural  species  of  the 
family.  llie  habit  of  barking,  however,  which  is  almost 
universal  with  domesticated  dogs,  forms  an  exception,  as  it 
does  not  characterise  a single  natural  species  of  the  family, 
though  I am  assured  that  the  Canis  latrans  of  North  America 
utters  a noise  which  closely  approaches  a bark.  But  this 
habit  is  soon  lost  by  dogs  when  they  become  feral  and  is  soon 
reacquired  Avhen  they  are  again  domesticated.  The  case  of 
the  wild  dogs  on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  having  become 
dumb  has  often  been  quoted,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  dumbness  ensued  in  the  course  of  thirty-three  years  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  dogs  taken  from  this  island  by  Ulloa 
slowly  reacquired  the  habit  of  barking.  The  Mackenzie- 
river  dogs,  of  the  Canis  latrans  type,  when  brought  to  Eng- 
land, never  learned  to  bark  properly ; but  one  born  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens “made  his  voice  souud  as  loudly  as  any 
other  dog  of  the  same  age  and  size.”  According  to  Trofessoi 

28  These  latter  remarks  afford,  I navianAdventrires,’1854,vo].i.p.  460. 
think,  a sufficient  answer  to  some  With  respect  to  the  jackal,  Prof, 
criticisms  by  Mr.  Wallace,  on  the  Gervais,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,’ tom.  ii. 
multiple  origin  of  dogs,  given  in  , p.  61.  With  respect  to  the  aguara  of 
LyelPs  ‘ Principles  of  Geology,’  1872,  Paraguay,  see  Eengger’s  work. 

vol.  ii.  p.  295;  so  Roulin,  in  ‘ M4m.  present,  par 

29  ‘ Proceedings  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1833,  divers  Savans,’  tom.  vi.  p.  341. 

p.  112.  See,  also,  on  the  taming  of  si  Martin,  ‘History  of  the  Dog,’ 
the  common  wolf^  L.  Lloyd,  ‘ Scandi-  p.  14. 


28 


DOGS. 


Chap.  L 


Nillson,®^  wolf-whelp  reared  by  a bitch  barks.  I,  Geoffro) 
Saint-Hilaire  exhibited  a jackal  which  barked  with  the  same 
tone  as  any  common  dog.^^  An  interesting  account  has  been 
given  by  Mr.  G.  Clarke  of  some  dogs  run  wild  on  Juan  do 
Nova,  in  the  Indian  Ocean ; “ they  had  entirely  lost  the 
faculty  of  barking ; they  had  no  inclination  for  the  company 
of  other  dogs,  nor  did  they  acquire  their  voice,”  during  a 
captivity  of  several  months.  On  the  island  they  “ congregate 
in  vast  packs,  and  catch  sea-birds  with  as  much  address  as 
foxes  could  display.”  The  feral  dogs  of  La  Plata  have  not 
become  dumb  ; they  are  of  large  size,  hunt  singly  or  in  packs, 
and  burrow  holes  for  their  young. In  these  habits  tlie 
feral  dogs  of  La  Plata  resemble  wolves  and  jackals ; both  of 
which  hunt  either  singly  or  in  packs,  and  burrow  holes.^® 
These  feral  dogs  have  not  become  uniform  in  colour  on  Juan 
Fernandez,  Juan  de  Nova,  or  La  Plata.^^  In  Cuba  the  feral 
dogs  are  described  by  Poeppig  as  nearly  all  mouse-ccJ cured, 
with  short  ears  and  light-blue  eyes.  In  St.  Domingo,  Col. 
Ham.  Smith  says  that  the  feral  dogs  are  very  large,  like 
greyhounds,  of  a uniform  pale  blue-ash,  with  small  ears,  and 
large  light-brown  eyes.  Even  the  wild  Dingo,  though  so 
anciently  naturalised  in  Australia,  “ varies  considei  ably  in 
colour,”  as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  P.  P.  King : a half-bred 
Dingo  reared  in  England  showed  signs  of  wishing  to 
burrow. 

Prom  the  several  foregoing  facts  we  see  that  reversion  in  tlic 
feral  state  gives  no  indication  of  the  colour  or  size  of  the  aboriginal 


*2  Quoted  by  L.  Lloyd  in  ‘ Field 
Sjiorts  of  North  of  Europe,’  vol.  i.  p. 
387. 

Quatrefages,  ‘ Soc.  d’Acclimat.,’ 
May  11th,  1863,  p.  7. 

‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.’ 
vol.  XV.,  1845,  p.  140. 

Azara,  ‘ Voyages  dans  I’Amer. 
Merid.,’  tom.  i.  p.  38  L ; his  account  is 
fully  confirmed'by  Rengger.  Quatre- 
fages gives  an  account  of  a bitch 
brought  from  Jerusalem  to  France 
ft-hich  burrowed  a hole  and  littered 
tu  it.  See  ‘ Discours,  Exposition  des 
Races  Canines,’  1865,  p.  3. 


With  respect  to  wolves  burrow- 
ing holes,  see  Richardson,  ‘ Fauna 
Boreali-Americana,’  p.  64  ; an  1 Bech- 
stein,  ‘Naturgeschichte  Deutsch lands,’ 
b.  i.  s.  617. 

See  Poeppig,  ‘ Reise  in  Chile, 
B.  i.  s.  290  ; Mr.  G.  Clarke,  as  above  ; 
and  Rengger,  s.  155. 

Dogs,  ‘Nat.  Library,’  vol.  x.  p. 
121  ; an  endemic  South  American  dog 
seems  also  to  have  become  feral  in  this 
island.  See  Gosse’s  ‘ Jamaica,’  p.  340. 

Low,  ‘ Domesticated  Auimalo. 
p.  650. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIE  PAEENTAGE. 


29 


parent-species.  One  fact,  however,  with  respect  to  the  colouring  of 
domestic  dogs,  I at  one  time  hoped  might  have  thrown  some  light 
on  their  origin;  and  it  is  worth  giving,' as  showing  how  colouring 
follows  laws,  even  in  so  anciently  and  thoroughly  domesticated  an 
animal  as  the  dog.  Black  dogs  with  tan-coloured  feet,  whatever 
breed  they  may  belong  to,  almost  invariably  have  a tan-coloured 
spot  on  the  upper  and  inner  corners  of  each  eye,  and  their  lips  are 
generally  thus  coloured.  I have  seen  only  two  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  namely,  in  a spaniel  and  terrier.  Dogs  of  a light-brown 
colour  often  have  a lighter,  yellowish-brown  spot  over  the  eyes; 
sometimes  the  spot  is  white,  and  in  a mongrel  terrier  the  spot  was- 
black.  Mr.  Waring  kindly  examined  for  me  a stud  of  fifteen  grey- 
hounds in  Suffolk : eleven  of  them  were  black,  or  black  and  white, 
or  brindled,  and  these  had  no  eye-spots ; but  three  were  red  and 
one  slaty-blue,  and  these  four  had  dark-coloured  spots  over  their 
eyes.  Although  the  spots  thus  sometimes  differ  in  colour,  they 
strongly  tend  to  be  tan-coloured ; this  is  proved  by  my  having  seen 
four  spaniels,  a setter,  two  Yorkshire  shepherd  dogs,  a large 
mongrel,  and  some  fox-hounds,  coloured  black  and  white,  with  not 
a trace  of  tan-colour,  excepting  the  spots  over  the  eyes,  and  some- 
times a little  on  the  feet.  These  latter  cases,  and  many  others, 
show  plainly  that  the  colour  of  the  feet  and  the  eye-spots  are  in 
some  way  correlated.  I have  noticed,  in  various  breeds,  every 
gradation,  from  the  whole  face  being  tan-coloured,  to  a complete 
ring  round  the  eyes,  to  a minute  spot  over  the  inner  and  upper 
corners.  The  spots  occur  in  various  sub-breeds  of  terriers  and 
spaniels ; in  setters ; in  hounds  of  various  kinds,  including  the 
turnspit-like  German  badger-hound ; in  shepherd  dogs ; in  a 
mongrel,  of  which  neither  parent  had  the  spots ; in  one  pure  bull- 
dog, though  the  spots  were  in  this  case  almost  white ; and  in  grey- 
Jiounds, — but  true  black-and-tan  greyhounds  are  excessively  rare ; 
nevertheless  I have  been  assured  by  Mr.  Warwick,  that  one  ran  at 
the  Caledonian  Champion  meeting  of  April  1860,  and  was  marked 
precisely  like  a black-and-tan  terrier.”  This  dog,  or  another  exactly 
the  same  colour,  ran  at  the  Scottish  National  Club  on  the  21st  of 
March,  1865 ; and  I hear  from  Mr.  C,  M.  Browne,  that  “ there  was 
no  reason  either  on  the  sire  or  dam  side  for  the  appearance  of  this 
unusual  colour.”  Mr.  Swinhoe  at  my  request  looked  at  the  dogs  in 
China,  at  Amoy,  and  he  soon  noticed  a brown  dog  with  yellow 
spots  over  the  eyes.  Colonel  H.  Smith  figures  the  magnificent 
black  mastiff  of  Thibet  with  a tan-cbloured  stripe  over  the  eyes, 
feet,  and  chaps;  and  what  is  more  singular,  he  figures  the  Alco,  or 
native  domestic  dog  of  Mexico,  as  black  and  white,  with  nariow 
tan-coloured  rings  round  the  eyes ; at  the  Exhibition  of  dogs  in 
London,  May  1863,  a so-called  forest  dog  from  North-West  Mexico 
was  shown,  which  had  pale  tan-coloured  spots  over  the  eyes.  The 
occurrence  of  these  tan-coloured  spots  in  dogs  of  such  extremely 


‘ The  Naturalist  Library,’  Dogs,  vol.  x.  pp.  4, 19. 


30 


DOGS. 


Chak  I, 


difforcint"  breeds,  living  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  makes  the  fact 
highly  remarkable. 

We  shall  hereafter  see,  especially  in  the  chapter  on  Pigeons,  that 
coloured  marks  are  strongl}'^  inherited,  and  that  they  often  aid  us 
in  discovering  the  primitive  forms  of  our  domestic  races.  Hence, 
if  any  wild  canine  species  had  distinctly  exhibited  the  tan-coloured 
B])ots  over  the  eyes,  it  might  have  been  argued  that  this  was  the 
parent-form  of  nearly  all  our  domestic  races.  But  after  looking  at 
many  coloured  plates,  and  through  the  whole  collection  of  skins  In 
the  British  Museum,  I can  find  no  species  thus  marked.  It  is  no 
doubt  possible  that  some  extinct  species  was  thus  coloured.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  looking  at  the  various  species,  there  seems  to  be 
a tolerably  plain  correlation  between  tan-coloured  legs  and  face; 
and  less  frequently  between  black  legs  and  a black  face  ; and  this 
general  rule  of  colouring  explains  to  a certain  extent  tlie  above- 
given cases  of  correlation  between  the  eye-spots  and  the  colour  of 
the  feet.  Moreover,  some  jackals  and  foxes  have  a trace  of  a white 
ring  round  their  eyes,  as  in  (J.  mesomelus,  C\  aureus,  and  (judging 
from  Colonel  H.  Smith’s  drawing)  in  (\  alopeor,  and  (J.  thaleb. 
Other  species  have  a trace  of  a black  line  over  the  corners  of  the 
eyes,  as  in  C.  varicgatus,  cinereo-variegatus,  and  fvlvus,  and  the  wild 
Dingo.  Hence  I am  inclined  to  conclude  that  a tendency  for  tan- 
coloured  spots  to  appear  over  the  eyes  in  the  various  breeds  of 
dogs,  is  analogous  to  the  case  observed  by  Desmarest,  namely,  that 
when  any  white  appears  on  a dog  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  always  white, 
“de  maniere  a rappel er  la  tache  terminate  de  meme  couleur,  qui 
caracterise  la  plupart  des  Canides  sauvages.”^^  This  rule,  however, 
as  I am  assured  by  Mr.  Jesse,  does  not  invariably  hold  good. 

It  has  been  objected  that  our  domestic  dogs  cannot  be 
descended  from  wolves  or  jackals,  because  their  periods  of 
gestation  are  different.  The  supposed  difference  rests  on 
statements  made  by  Buflfon,  Gilibert,  Bechstein,  and  others ; 
but  these  are  now  known  to  be  erroneous  ; and  the  period  is 
found  to  agree  in  the  wolf,  jackal,  and  dog,  as  closely  as  could 
be  expected,  for  it  is  often  in  some  degree  variable.^^  Tessier, 


Quoted  by  Prof.  Gervais,  ‘ Hist. 
Nat.  Mamin.,’  tom.  ii.  p.  66. 

J,  Hunter  shows  that  the  long 
period  of  seventy-three  days  given  by 
Buffon  is  easily  explained  by  the  bitch 
having  received  the  dog  many  times 
during  a period  of  sixteen  days  (‘  Phil. 
Transact.,’  1787,  p.  353).  Hunter 
found  that  the  gestation  of  a mongrel 
from  wolf  and  dog  (‘Phil.  Transact.,’ 
I7fi9,  p.  160)  apparently  w'as  sixty- 


three  days,  for  she  received  the  dog 
more  than  once.  The  period  of  a 
mongrel  dog  and  jackal  was  tifty-uine 
days.  Fred.  Cuvier  found  the  period 
of  gestation  of  the  wolf  to  be  (‘  Diet. 
Class.  d’Hist.  Nat.’  tom.  iv.  p.  8)  two 
months  and  a few  days,  which  agrees 
with  the  dog.  Isid.  G.  St.-Hi!aire, 
W’ho  has  discussed  the  whole  subject, 
and  from  whom  I quote  Bellinger^ 
states  (‘Hist.  Nat.  Gen,’  tom.  iiL  p 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


31 


who  lias  closely  attended  to  this  subject,  allows  a difference 
of  four  days  in  the  gestation  of  the  dog.  The  Eev.  W.  D. 
Fox  has  given  me  three  carefully  recorded  cases  of  retrievers, 
in  which  the  bitch  was  put  only  once  to  the  dog ; and  not 
counting  this  day,  but  counting  that  of  parturition,  the 
periods  were  fifty-nine,  sixty-two,  and  sixty-seven  days.  The 
average  period  is  sixty-three  days ; but  Bellingeri  states  that 
this  applies  only  to  large  dogs;  and  that  for  small  races  it 
is  from  sixty  to  sixty-three  days ; Mr.  Eyton  of  Eyton,  who 
has  had  much  experience  with  dogs,  also  informs  me  that 
the  time  is  apt  to  be  longer  with  large  than  with  small 
dogs. 

F.  Cuvier  has  objected  that  the  jackal  would  not  have  been 
domesticated  on  account  of  its  offensive  smell ; but  savages  are  ‘ 
not  sensitive  in  this  respect.  The  degree  of  odour,  also,  differs 
in  the  different  kinds  of  jackal  and  Colonel  H.  Smith  makes 
a sectional  division  of  the  group  with  one  character  dependent 
on  not  being  offensive.  On  the  other  hand,  dogs — for  instance, 
rough  and  smooth  terriers — differ  much  in  this  respect ; and 
M.  Godron  states  that  the  hairless  so-called  Turkish  dog  is 
more  odoriferous  than  other  dogs.  Isidore  Geoffrey  gave  to 
a dog  the  same  odour  as  that  from  a jackal  by  feeding  it  on  raw 
flesh. 

The  belief  that  our  dogs  are  descended  from  wolves,  jackals. 
South  American  Canidae,  and  other  species,  suggests  a far  more 
impoi'tant  difficulty.  These  animals  in  their  undomesticated 
state,  judging  from  a widely-spread  analogy,  would  have  been 
in  some  degree  sterile  if  intercrossed  ; and  such  sterility  will 
be  admitted  as  almost  certain  by  all  those  who  believe  that 
the  lessened  fertility  of  erossed  forms  is  an  infallible  criterion 
of  specific  distinctness.  Anyhow  these  animals  keep  distinct 
in  the  countries  which  they  inhabit  in  common.  On  the 
other  hand,  all  domestic  dogs,  which  are  here  supposed  to 
be  descended  from  several  distinct  species,  are,  as  far  as  is 


112)  that  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  ’ ‘Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  112,  on 
the  period  of  the  jackal  has  been  the  odour  of  jackals.  Col.  Ham.  Smith, 

found  to  be  from  sixty  to  sixty-three  m ‘ Nat.  Lib.,’  vol.  x.  p.  289. 

lays,  exactly  as  with  the  dog.  Quoted  by  Quatrefages  in  ‘ Bull 

Sec  Isid.  Geoffroy  St.-Hilaire,  Soc.  d’Acclimat.,’  May  llth,  1868. 


32 


DOGS. 


OliAP.  I. 


kiK)\vn,  miitTiall}'’  fertile  together..  But,  as  Broca  has  well 
remarked, the  fertility  of  successive  generations  of  mongrel 
dogs  has  never  been  scrutinised  with  that  care  Avhich  is 
thought  indispensable  when  species  are  crossed.  The  few 
facts  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  the  sexual  feelings  and 
reproductive  powers  differ  in  the  several  races  of  the  dog 
when  crossed  are  (passing  over  mere  size  as  rendering  pro- 
pagation difficult)  as  follows  : the  Mexican  Alco  apparently 
dislikes  dogs  of  other  kinds,  but  this  perhaps  is  not  strictly  a 
sexual  feeling ; the  hairless  endemic  dog  of  Paraguay,  ac- 
cording to  Eengger,  mixes  less  with  the  European  races  than 
these  do  with  each  other ; the  Spitz  dog  in  Germany  is  said 
to  receive  the  fox  more  readily  than  do  other  breeds  ; and  Dr. 
Hodgkin  states  that  a female  Dingo  in  England  attracted  the 
male  wild  foxes.  If  these  latter  statements  can  be  trusted, 
they  prove  some  degree  of  sexual  difference  in  the  breeds  of 
the  dog.  But  the  fact  remains  that  our  domestic  dogs, 
differing  so  widely  as  they  do  in  external  structure,  are  far 
more  fertile  together  than  we  have  reason  to  believe  their 
supposed  wild  parents  would  have  been,  Pallas  aS'Umes 
that  a long  course  of  domestication  eliminates  that  sterility 
which  the  parent-species  would  have  exhibited  if  only  lately 
captured  ; no  distinct  facts  are  recorded  in  support  of  this 
hypothesis ; but  the  evidence  seems  to  me  so  strong  (indepen- 
dently of  the  evidence  derived’  from  other  domesticated 
animals)  in  favour  of  our  domestic  dogs  having  descended  from 
several  wild  stocks,  that  I am  inclined  to  admit  the  truth  of 
this  hypothesis. 

There  is  another  and  closely  allied  difficulty  consequent  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  descent  of  our  domestic  dogs  from  several 
wild  species,  namely,  that  they  do  not  seem  to  be  perfectly 
fertile  with  their  supposed  parents.  But  the  experiment  has 
not  been  quite  fairly  tried  ; the  Hungarian  dog,  for  instance, 


‘Journal  de  la  Physiologie,’  tom. 
li.  p.  385. 

See  Mr,  E.  Hill’s  excellent  ac- 
count of  this  breed  in  Gosse’s 
‘Jamaica,’ p.  338;  Rengger’s  ‘ Sauge- 
thiere  von  Paraguay,’  s.  153.  With 
respect  to  Spitz  dogs,  see  Bechstein’o 


‘Naturgesch.  Deutschlands,’  1801, 
B.  i.  s.  638.  With  respect  to  Dr. 
Hodgkin’s  statement  made  before 
Brit.  Assoc.,  see  ‘ The  Zoologist,’  vol. 
iv.,  for  1845-^16,  p.  1097. 

‘Acta  Acad.  St.  Petersburg]), 
1780,  part  ii.  pp.  84,  100. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


33 


which  in  external  appearance  so  closely  resembles  the  Euro- 
pean wolf,  ought  to  be  crossed  with  this  wolf : and  the 
pariah  dogs  of  India  with  Indian  wolves  and  jackals ; and  so 
in  other  cases.  That  the  sterility  is  very  slight  between 
certain  dogs  and  wolves  and  other  Canidee  is  shown  by 
savages  taking  the  trouble  to  cross  them.  Buffon  got  four 
successive  generations  from  the  wolf  and  dog,  and  the 
mongrels  were  perfectly  fertile  together.^®  But"  more  lately 
M.  Flourens  states  positively  as  the  result  of  his  numerous 
experiments  that  hybrids  from  the  wolf  and  dog,  crossed 
inter  se,  become  sterile  at  the  third  generation,  and  those 
from  the  jackal  and  dog  at  the  fourth  generation.^®  But 
these  animals  were  closely  confined ; and  many  wild  animals, 
as  we  shall  see  in  a future  chapter,  are  rendered  by  confine- 
ment in  some  degree  or  even  utterly  sterile.  The  Dingo, 
which  breeds  freely  in  Australia  with  our  imported  dogs, 
would  not  breed  though  repeatedly  crossed  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.®®  Some  hounds  from  Central  Africa,  brought  home 
by  Major  Denham,  never  bred  in  the  Tower  of  London 
and  a similar  tendeney  to  sterility  might  be  transmitted  to 
the  hybrid  offspring  of  a wild  animal.  Moreover,  it  appears 
that  in  M.  Elourens’  experiments  the  hybrids  were  closely 
bred  in  and  in  for  three  or  four  generations ; and  this  cir- 
cumstance, would  most  certainly  increase  the  tendency  to 
sterility.  Several  years  ago  I saw  confined  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  of  London  a female  hybrid  from  an  English  dog 
and  jackal,  which  even  in  this  the  first  generation  was  so 
sterile  that,  as  I was  assured  by  her  keeper,  she  did  not  fully 


48  M.  Broca  has  shown  (‘  Journal 
cle  Physiologic,’  tom.  li.  p.  353)  that* 
Button’s  experiments  have  been  often 
misrepresented.  Broca  has  collected 
(pp.  390-395)  many  facts  on  the 
fertility  of  crossed  dogs,  wolves,  and 
jackals. 

49  ‘ Be  la  Longevite  llumaine,’  par 
M.  Flourens,  1855,  p.  143.  Mr.  Blyth 
says  (‘  Indian  Sporting  Review,’  vol. 
ii.  p.  137)  that  he  has  seen  in  India 
several  hybrids  fro-m  the  pariah-dog 
and  jackal ; and  between  one  of  these 
hybrids  and  a terrier.  The  experi- 
ments of  Hunter  on  the  jackal  arc 


well-known.  See  also  Isid.  Geoffroy 
St.-Hilaire,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii. 
p.  217,  who  speaks  of  the  hybrid  off- 
spring of  the  jackal  as  perfectly  fer- 
tile for  three  generations. 

50  On  ^ authority  of  F.  Cuvier, 
quoted  in  Bronn's  ‘ Geschichte  der 
Natur,’  B.  ii.  s.  164. 

54  W.  C.  L.  Martin,  ‘ History  of  the 
■Dog,’  1845,  p.  203.  Mr.  Philip  P. 
King,  after  ample  opportunities  of 
observation,  informs  me  that  the 
Dingo  and  European  dogs  often  cross 
in  Australia. 


u 


DOGS. 


CnAP.  I. 


exDiLit  her  proper  periods ; but  this  case  was  certainly 
exceptional,  as  numerons  instances  have  occurred  of  fertile 
hybrids  from  these  two  animals.  In  almost  all  experiments 
on  tlio  crossing  of  animals  there  are  so  many  causes  of  doubt, 
(hat  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  come  to  any  positive  con- 
clusion. It  would,  however,  appear,  that  those  who  belioA^e 
that  our  dogs  are  descended  from  several  species  will  have 
n(>t  only  to  admit  that  their  offspring  after  a long  course  of 
domestication  generally  lose  all  tendency  to  sterility  when 
crossed  together ; but  that  between  certain  breeds  of  dogs  and 
some  of  their  supposed  aboriginal  parents  a certain  degree  of 
sterility  has  been  retained  or  possibly  even  acquired. 

]\  otwithstanding  the  difficulties  in  regard  to  fertility 
given  in  the  last  two  paragraphs,  when  we  reflect  on  the 
inherent  improbability  of  man  having  domesticated  through- 
out the  world  one  single  species  alone  of  so  widely  distributed, 
so  easily  tamed,  and  so  useful  a group  as  the  CanideC  ; when 
we  reflect  on  the  extreme  antiquity  of  the  different  breeds ; 
and  especially  when  we  reflect  on  the  close  similarity,  both 
in  external  structure  and  habits,  between  the  domestic  dogs 
of  various  countries  and  the  wild  species  still  inhabiting 
these  same  countries,  the  balance  of  evidence  is  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  multiple  origin  of  our  dogs. 


Differences  between  the  several  Breeds  of  the  Dog. — If  the 
several  breeds  have  descended  from  several  wild  stoclcs,  their 
difference  can  obviously  in  part  be  explained  by  that  of  their 
parent  species.  For  instance,  the  form  of  the  greyhound 
may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  descent  from  some  such 
animal  as  the  slim  Abyssinian  Canis  simensis,^"^  with  its 
elongated  muzzle ; that  of  the  larger  dogs  from  the  larger 
wolves,  and  the  smaller  and  slighter  dogs  from  the  jackals : 
and  thus  perhaps  we  may  account  for  certain  constitutional 
and  climatal  differences.  But  it  would  be  a great  error 
to  suppose  that  there  has  not  been  in  addition  a large 


52  Ruppcl,  ‘ Neue  Wirbelthiere  von 
Abyssinien,’  1835-40 ; ‘ Mammif.,’  s. 
39,  pi.  xLv.  There  is  a specimen 
of  tins  fine  animal  in  the  British 


Museum. 

53  Even  Pallas  admits  this ; see 
‘Act.  Acad.  St.  Petersburgh,’  1780, 
p.  93. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


35 


ainovmt  of  variation.  The  intercrossing  of  the  several 
aboriginal  wild  stock-!,  and  of  the  subsequently  formed  races, 
has  probably  increa-ed  the  total  number  of  breeds,  and,  as 
we  shall  presently  see,  has  greatly  modified  some  of  them. 
But  wo  cannot  explain  by  crossing  the  origin  of  such  extremo 
forms  as  thoroughbred  greyhounds,  bloodhounds,  bulldogs, 
Blenheim  spaniels,  terriers,  pugs,  &c.,  unless  we  believe  that 
forms  equally  or  more  strongly  characterised  in  these  different 
respects  once  existed  in  nature.  But  hardly  any  one  has 
been  bold  enough  to  suppose  that  such  unnatural  forms  ever 
did  or  could  exist  in  a wild  state.  When  compared  with  all 
known  members  of  the  family  of  CanidcU  they  betray  a 
distinct  and  abnormal  origin.  No  instance  is  on  record  of 
such  dogs  as  bloodhounds,  spaniels,  true  greyhounds  having 
been  kept  by  savages  : they  are  the  product  of  long-continued 
civilization. 

The  miraber  of  breeds  and  sub-breeds  of  the  dog  is  great ; Youatt 
for  instance,  describes  twelve  kinds  of  greyhounds.  I will  not 
attempt  to  enumerate  or  describe  the  varieties,  for  we  cannot  dis- 
criminate how  much  of  their  difference  is  due  to  variation,  and 
how  much  to  descent  from  different  aboriginal  stocks.  But  it  may 
be  worth  while  briefly  to  mention  some  points.  Commencing  with 
the  skull,  Cuvier  has  admitted that  in  form  the  differences  are 
“ plus  fortes  que  cedes  d’aucunes  especes  sauvages  d’un  meme 
genre  naturel.”  The  proportions  of  the  different  bones ; the  curva- 
ture of  the  lower  jaw,  the  position  of  the  condyles  with  respect  to 
the  plane  of  the  teeth  (on  which  F.  Cuvier  founded  his  classification), 
and  in  mastiffs  the  shape  of  its  posterior  branch ; the  shape  of  the 
zygomatic  arch,  and  of  the  temporal  fossae;  the  position  of  the 
occiput— all  vary  considerably.®^  The  difference  in  size  between 
the  brains  of  dogs  belonging  to  large  and  small  breeds  is  some- 
thing prodigious  ” “ Some  dogs’  brains  are  high  and  rounded, 

while  others  are  low,  long,  and  narrow  in  front.”  In  the  latter, 
“ the  olfactory  lobes  are  visible  for  about  half  their  extent,  when 
the  brain  is  seen  from  above,  but  they  are  wholly  concealed  by  the 
hemispheres  in  other  breeds.”®®  The  dog  has  properly  six  pairs  of 
molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  seven  in  the  lower ; but  several 


Quoted  by  I.  Geoffroy,  ‘Hist. 
Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  4.53. 

F.  Cuvier,  in  ‘Annales  du 
Huseiim,’ tom.  xviii.  p.  337  ; Godron, 
‘ De  I’Espeee,’  tom.  i.  p.  342 ; and 
Col.  H.  Smith,  in  ‘ Nat.  Library,’ 
vol.  ix.  p.  101.  See  also  some 


observations  on  the  degeneracy  of 
the  skull  in  certain  breeds,  by  Prof. 
Bianconi,  ‘ La  Theorie  Darwinienne,* 
1874,  p.  279. 

Dr.  Burt  Wilder,  ‘American 
Assoc.  Advancement  of  Science,’  1873 
pp.  236,  239. 


sa 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I. 


iKitr.ralista  liavG  seen  not  rarely  an  additional  pair  in  the  upper 
jaw and  Professor  Gervais  says  that  there  are  dogs  “qni  ont 
sept  paires  de  dents  siiperieures  et  hnit  inferienres.”  De  Blain- 
ville'^^  has  given  full  particulars  on  the  frequency  of  these  deviations 
in  the  number  of  the  teeth,  and  has  shown  that  it  is  not  always  tlm 
same  tooth  which  is  supernnmerary.  In  short-muzzled  races, 
according  to  H.  Muller/'''’  the  molar  teeth  stand  obliquely,  whilst 
in  long-muzzled  races  they  are  placed  longitudinally,  with  open 
spac'es  between  them.  Tlie  naked,  so-called  Egyptian  or  Turkish 
dog  is  extremely  deficient  in  its  teeth,®® — sometimes  having  none 
except  one  molar  on  each  side ; but  this,  though  characteristic  of 
the  breed,  must  be  considered  as  a monstrosity.  M.  Girard,®^  who 
seems  to  have  attended  closely  to  the  subject,  says  that  the  period 
of  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth  differs  in  different  dogs, 
being  earlier  in  large  dogs ; thus  the  mastiff  assumes  its  adult  teeth 
iu  four  or  five  months,  whilst  in  the  spaniel  the  period  is  sometimes 
more  than  seven  or  eight  months.  On  the  other  hand  small  dogs 
are  mature,  and  the  females  have  arrived  at  the  best  age  for 
breeding,  when  one  year  old,  whereas  large  dogs  are  still  in  their 
puppyhood  at  this  time,  and  take  fully  twice  as  long  to  develop 
their  proportions.’’®^ 

With  respect  to  minor  differences  little  need  be  said.  Isidore 
Geoffroy  has  shown  ®^  that  in  size  some  dogs  are  six  times  as  long 
(the  tail  being  excluded)  as  others  ; and  that  the  height  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  body  varies  from  between  one  to  two,  and  one 
to  nearly  four.  In  the  Scotch  deer-hound  there  is  a striking  and 
remarkable  difference  in  the  size  of  the  male  and  female.®^  Every 
one  knows  how  the  ears  vary  in  size  in  different  breeds,  and  with 
their  great  development  their  muscles  become  atrophied.  Certain 
breeds  of  dogs  are  described  as  having  a deep  furrow  between  the 
nostrils  and  lips.  The  caudal  vertebrje,  according  to  F.  Cuvier, 
on  whose  authority  the  two  last  statements  rest,  vary  in  number ; 
and  the  tail  in  English  cattle  and  some  shepherd  dogs  is  almost 
absent.  The  mammse  vary  from  seven  to  ten  in  number ; Dauben- 
ton,  having  examined  twenty-one  dogs,  found  eight  with  five 
mammae  on  each  side;  eight  with  four  on  each  side;  aed  the  others 


5’’  Isid.  Geoffroy  Saint-IIilaire, 
‘ Hist,  des  Anomalies,’  1832,  tom.  i. 
p.  660,  Gervais,  ‘Hist.  Nat.  des 
Mammifercs,’  tom.  ii.,  1S5&,  p.'06.  De 
Blainville  (‘  Osteographie,  Canidte,’ 
p.  137)  has  also  seen  an  extra  molar 
on  both  sides. 

68  ‘ Osteographie,  Canid®,’  p.  137. 

69  Wilrzburger,  ‘Mcdecin.  Zeit- 
schrift,’  1860,  B.  i.  s.  265. 

60  Mr.  Yarrell,  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog. 
Soc.,’  Oct.  8th,  1833.  Mr.  Water- 
house  showed  me  a skull  of  one  of 


these  dogs,  which  had  only  a single 
molar  on  each  side  and  some  imper- 
fect incisors. 

61  Quoted  in  ‘ The  Ycterinary,’ 
London,  vol.  viii.  p.  415. 

62  This  is  quoted  from  JStonoIiengc, 
a great  authority,  ‘ The  Doa^,’  1867, 
p.  187. 

63  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Gemiral,’  tom.  iii.  p.  - 
448. 

64  W.  Scrope,  ‘ Art  of  Dccr-Stalk- 
ing,’  p.  354. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIK  PARENTAGE. 


37 


with  an  nnequal  number  on  the  two  sides.®^  Dogs  have  properly 
five  toes  in  front  and  four  behind,  hut  a fifth  toe  is  often  added  ; 
and  F.  Cuvier  states  that,  when  a fifth  toe  is  present,  a fourtli 
cuneiform  t)one  is  developed ; and,  in  this  case,  sometimes  the  great 
cuneiform  bone  is  raised,  and  gives  on  its  inner  side  a large  arti- 
cular surface  to  the  astragalus ; so  that  even  the  relative  connection 
of  the  bones,  the  most  constant  of  all  characters,  varies.  These 
modifications,  however,  in  the  feet  of  dogs  are  not  important, 
because  they  ought  to  be  ranked,  as  De  Blainville  has  shown,®®  as 
monstrosities.  Nevertheless  they  are  interesting  from  being  corre- 
lated with  tlie  size  of  the  body,  for  they  occur  much  more  frequently 
with  mastiffs  and  other  large  breeds  than  with  small  dogs.  Closely 
allied  varieties,  however,  sometimes  differ  in  this  respect;  thus 
Mr.  Hodgson  states  that  the  black- and- tan  Lassa  variety  of  the 
Thibet  mastiff  has  the  fifth  digit,  whilst  the  Mustang  sub- variety 
is  not  thus  characterised.  The  extent  to  which  the  skin  is  developed 
between  the  tees  varies  much ; but  we  shall  return  to  this  point. 
The  degree  to  which  the  various  breeds  differ  in  the  perfection  of 
their  senses,  dispositions,  and  inherited  habits  is  notorious  to  every 
one.  The  breeds  present  some  constitutional  differences : the  pulse, 
says  Youatt,®'^ varies  materially  according  to  the  breed,  as  well  as 
to  the  size  of  the  animal.”  Different  breeds  of  dogs  are  subject 
in  different  degrees  to  various  diseases.  They  certainly  become 
adapted  to  different  climates  under  which  they  have  long  existed. 
It  is  notorious  that  most  of  our  best  European  breeds  deteriorate 
in  India.®®  The  Rev  E.  Everest®®  believes  that  no  one  has  succeeded 
in  keeping  the  Newfoundland  dog  long  alive  in  India;  so  it  is, 
according  to  Lichtenstein,''®  even  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
Thibet  mastiff  degenerates  on  the  plains  of  India,  and  can  live  only 
on  the  mountains.^^  Lloyd asserts  that  our  bloodhounds  and 
bulldogs  have  been  tried,  and  cannot  withstand  the  cold  of  the 
northern  European  forests.  * 

Seeing  in  how  many  characters  the  races  of  the  dog  differ 


Quoted  by  Col.  Ham.  Smith  in 
‘ Nat.  Lib.,’  vol.  x.  p.  79. 

De  Blainville,  ‘ Osteographie, 
Canidae,’  p.  134.  F.  Cuvier,  ‘ Annales 
du  IMuseum.’  tom.  xviii.  p.  342.  In 
regard  to  mastiffs,  see  Col.  H.  Smith, 
‘Nat.  Lib.’  vol.  x.  p.  218.  For  the 
Thibet  mastiff,  see  Mr.  Hodgson  in 
‘ Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,’  vol.  i., 
1832,  p.  342.  * 

‘The  Dog,’  1845,  p.  186.  With 
respect  to  diseases,  Youatt  asserts  (p. 
167)  that  the  Italian  greyhound  is 
'‘strongly  subject  ” to  i>olypi  in  the 
matrix  or  vagina.  The  spaniel  and 


chocele.  The  liability  to  distemper 
(p.  232)  is  extremely  different  in  dif- 
ferent breeds.  On  the  distemper,  s e 
also  Col.  Hutchinson  on  ‘Dog  Break- 
ing,’ 1850,  p.  279. 

See  Youatt  on  the  Dog,  p.  15; 
‘The  Veterinary,’ London,  vol.  xi.  p. 
235. 

‘ Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,’ 
vol.  iii.  p.  19. 

‘ Travels,’  vol.  ii.  p.  15. 

Hodgson,  in  ‘Journal  of  As.  Soc. 
of  Bengal,’  vol.  i.  p.  342. 

‘ Field  Sports  of  tho  North  or 
Europe,’  vol  li.  p.  165. 


38 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I. 


Troin  each  other,  and  remembering  Cuvier’s  admission  that 
tlieir  skulls  differ  more  than  do  those  of  the  species  of  any 
natural  genus,  and  bearing  in  mind  how  closely  the  bones  of 
wolves,  jackals,  foxes,  and  other  Canidae  agree,  it  is  remark- 
able that  we  meet  with  the  statement,  repeated  over  and 
over  again,  that  the  races  of  the  dog  differ  in  no  important 
( haracters.  A highly  competent  judge.  Prof.  Gervais,”^^ 
udinit-i  “i<i  Ton  prenait  sans  controle  les  alterations  doiit 
chacun  de  ces  organes  est  susceptible,  on  poutrait  croire  qu’il 
y a entre  les  chiens  domestiques  des  differences  plus  grandes 
que  ee  les  qui  separent  ailleurs  les  especes,  quelquefois  meine 
les  genres.”  Some  of  the  differences  above  enumerated  are 
in  one  respect  of  comparatively  little  value,  for  they  are  not 
characteristic  of  distinct  breeds  : no  one  pretends  that  such 
is  the  case  witli  the  additional  molar  teeth  or  with  the  number 
of  mammae ; the  additional  digit  is  generally  present  with 
mastiffs,  and  some  of  the  more  important  differences  in  the 
skull  and  lower  jaw  are  more  or  less  characteristic  of  various 
breeds.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  predominant  power 
of  selection  has  not  been  applied  in  any  of  these  cases;  we 
have  variability  in  important  parts,  but  the  differences  have 
not  been  fixed  by  selection.  Man  cares  for  the  form  and 
fleetne  s of  his  greyhound'’,  for  the  size  of  his  mastiffs,  and 
formerly  for  the  strength  of  the  jaw  in  his  bulldogs,  Ac. ; 
but  he  cares  nothing  about  the  number  of  their  molar  teeth 
or  mammae  or  digits ; nor  do  we  know  that  differences  in 
these  organs  are  correlated  with.  Tor  owe  their  development 
to,  differences  in  other  parts  of  the  body  about  which  man 
does  care,  'i'hose  who  have  attended  to  the  subject  of 
selection  will  admit  that,  nature  having  given  variability, 
man,  if  he  so  chose,  could  fix  five  toes  to  the  hinder  feet  of 
certain  breeds  of  dogs,  as  certainly  as  to  the  feet  of  his 
Dorking  fowls:  he  could  probably  fix,  but  with  much  more 
difficulty,  an  additional  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  either  jaw,  in 
the  same  way  as  he  has  given  additional  horns  to  certain 
breeds  of  sheep  ; if  he  wished  to  produce  a toothless  breed  of 
dogs,  having  the  so  called  Turkish  dog  with  its  imperfect 


‘ Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammif.,’  1855,  tom.  ii.  pp.  66,  67. 


CiiAr  I. 


THEIR  -PARENTAGE. 


39 


teeth  to  work  on,  he  conld  probably  do  so,  for  he  Las 
succeeded  in  making  hornless  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

A\  ith  respect  to  the  precise  causes  and  steps  by  which  the 
several  races  of  dogs  have  come  to  differ  so  greatly  from  each 
other,  we  are,  as  in  most  other  cases,  profoundly  ignorant.  We 
may  attribute  part  of  the  difference  in  external  form  and  con- 
stitution to  inheritance  from  distinct  wild  stocks,  that  is  to 
changes  effected  under  nature  before  domestication.  We  must 
attribute  something  to  the  crossing  of  the  several  domestic 
and  natural  races.  I shall,  however,  soon  recur  to  the  crossing 
of  races.  We  have  already  seen  how  often  savages  cross  their 
dogs  with  wild  native  species ; and  Pennant  gives  a curious 
account  of  the  manner  in  which  Fochabers,  in  Scotland,  was 
stocked  “ with  a multitude  of  curs  of  a most  wolfish  aspect  ” 
from  a single  hybrid- wolf  brought  into  that  district. 

It  would  appear  that  climate  to  a certain  extent  directly 
modifies  the  forms  of  dogs.  We  have  lately  seen  that  several 
of  our  English  breeds  cannot  live  in  India,  and  it  is  positively 
asserted  that  when  bred  there  for  a few  generations  they 
degenerate  not  onty  in  their  mental  faculties,  but  in  form. 
Captain  Williamson,’'^  who  carefully  attended  to  this  subject, 
states  that  “ hounds  are  the  most  rapid  in  their  decline 
“ greyhounds  and  pointers,  also,  rapidly  decline.”  But 
spaniels,  after  eight  or  nine  generations,  and  rvithout  a cross 
from  Europe,  are  as  good  as  their  ancestors.  Ur.  Falconer 
informs  me  that  bulldogs,  which  have  been  knoNyn,  when 
first  brought  into  the  country,  to  pin  down  even  an  elejDhant 
by  its  trunk,  not  only  fall  off  after  two  or  three  generations 
in  pluck  and  ferocity,  but  lose  the  under-hung  character 
of  their  lower  jaws  ; their  muzzles  become  finer  and  their 
bodies  lighter.  English  dogs  imported  into  India  are  so 
valuable  that  probably  due  care  has  been  taken  to  prevent 
their  ci  ossiug  with  native  dogs ; so  that  the  deterioration 
cannot  be  thus  accounted  for.  The  Kev.  E.  Everest  informs 
me  that  he  obtained  a pair  of  setters,  born  in  India,  which 
perfectly  resembled  their  Scotch  parents : he  raised  several 
litters  from  them  in  Delhi,  taking  the  most  stringent 

” ‘History  of  Quadrupeds,’  1793,  ‘Oriental  Field  Sports,’ quoted 

vol.  i.  p.  238.  by  Youatt,  ‘The  Dog,’  p.  16. 


40 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I. 


precautions  to  prevent  a cross,  but  he  never  succeeded,  though 
this  was  only  the  second  generation  in  India,  in  obtaining 
a single  young  dog  like  its  parents  in  size  or  make;  their 
nostrils  were  more  contracted,  their  noses  more  pointed,  their 
size  inferior,  and  their  limbs  more  slender.  So  again  on  tiie 
coast  of  Guinea,  dogs,  according  to  Bosman,  “ alter  strangel}^ ; 
their  ears  grow  long  and  stiff  like  those  of  foxes,  to  whicli 
colour  they  also  incline,  so  that  in  three  or  four  years,  they 
degenerate  into  very  ugly  creatures;  and  in  thiee  or  four 
broods  their  barking  turns  into  a howl.”  This  remarkable 
tendency  to  rapid  deterioration  in  European  dogs  subjected 
to  the  climate  of  India  and  Africa,  may  be  largely  accounted 
for  by  reversion  to  a primordial  condition  which  many  animals 
exhibit,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  when  their  constitutions 
are  in  any  way  disturbed. 

Some  of  the  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the  scA’eral  breeds 
of  the  dog  have  probably  arisen  suddenly,  and,  though  strictl}^ 
inherited,  maybe  called  monstrosities  ; for  instance,  the  shape 
of  the  legs  and  body  in  the  turnspit  of  Europe  and  India  ; 
the  shape  of  the  head  and  the  under-hanging  jaw  in  the  bull- 
and  pug-dog,  so  alike  in  this  one  respect  and  so  unlike  in  all 
others.  A peculiarity  suddenly  arising,  and  therefore  in  one 
sense  deserving  to  be  called  a monstrosity,  may,  however,  be 
increased  and  fixed  by  man’s  selection.  We  can  hardly  doubt 
that  long-continued  training,  as  with  the  greyhound  in 
coursing  hares,  as  with  water-dogs  in  swimming — and  the 
want  of  exercise,  in  the  case  of  lapdogs — must  have  produced 
some  direct  effect  on  theit  structure  and  instincts.  But  we 
shall  immediately  see  that  the  most  potent  cause  of  change 
has  probably  been  the  selection,  both  methodical  and  uncon- 
scious, of  slight  individual  differences, — the  latter  kind  of 
selection  resulting  from  the  occasional  preservation,  during 
hundreds  of  generations,  of  those  individual  dogs  which  were 
the  most  useful  to  man  for  certain  purposes  and  under  certain 
conditions  of  life.  In  a future  chapter  on  Selection  I shall 
show  that  even  barbarians  attend  closely  to  the  qualities  of 
their  clogs.  This  unconscious  selection  by  man  would  be  aided 

78  A.  Murray  gives  this  passage  in  his  ‘ Geographical  Distribution  of  Mam- 
mals,’ 4to,  18GG,  p.  8. 


CiiAi'.  L 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


41 


by  a kind  of  natural  selection ; for  the  dogs  of  savages  have 
])aitly  to  gain  iheir  own  subsistence:  for  instance,  in  Aus- 
tralia, as  we  hear  from  Mr.  Nind,^'^  the  dogs  are  sometimes 
compelled  by  want  to  leave  their  masters  and  provide  for 
themselves  ; but  in  a few  days  they  generally  return.  And 
we  may  infer  that  dogs  of  different  shapes,  sizes,  and  habits, 
M'ould  have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  under  different 
circumstances, — on  open  sterile  plains,  where  they  have  to 
run  down  their  own  prey, — on  rocky  coasts,  where  they  have 
to  feed  on  crabs  and  fish  left  in  the  tidal  pools,  as  in  the  case 
oi‘  New  Guinea  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  In  this  latter  country, 
as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Bridges,  the  Catechist  to  the  Mission, 
the  dogs  turn  over  the  stones  on  the  shore  to  catch  the  crus- 
taceans which  lie  beneath,  and  they  “ are  clever  enough  to 
knock  off  the  shell-fish  at  a first  blow for  if  this  be  not 
done,  shelhfish  are  well  known  to  have  an  almost  invincible 
power  of  adhesion. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  dogs  differ  in  the  degree 
to  which  their  feet  are  webbed.  Imdogs  of  the  Newfoundland 
breed,  which  are  eminently  aquatic  in  their  habits,  the  skin, 
according  to  Isidore  Geoffrey, extends  to  the  third  phalanges 
whilst  in  ordinary  dogs  it  extends  only  to  the  second.  In 
two  Newfoundland  dogs  which  I examined,  when  the  toes 
were  stretched  apart  and  viewed  on  the  under  side,  the  skin 
extended  in  a nearly  straight  line  between  the  outer  margins 
of  the  balls  of  the  toes ; whereas,  in  two  terriers  of  distinct 
sub-breeds,  the  skin  viewed  in  the  same  manner  was  deeply 
scooped  out.  In  Canada  there  is  a dog  which  is  peculiar  P. 
the  country  and  common  there,  and  this  has  “ half-webbed 
feet  and  is  fond  of  the  water.”  English  otter-hounds  are 
said  to  have  webbed  feet : a friend  examined  for  me  the  feet 
of  two,  in  comparison  with  the  feet  of  some  harriers  and 
bloodhounds ; he  found  the  skin  variable  in  extent  in  all,  but 
more  dex  eloped  in  the  otter-hounds  than  in  the  others.^*^  As 


Quoted  by  Mr.  Galton,  ‘ Domes- 
tication of  Animals,’  p.  13. 

78  ‘Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  450. 

79  Mr.  Grcenliow  on  the  Canadian 
Dog,  in  Loudon’s  ‘ Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’ 


vol.  vi.,  1833,  p.  611. 

80  See  Mr.  C.  O.  Groom-Napier  on 
the  webbing  of  the  hind  feet  of  Otter- 
hounds,  in  ‘ Land  and  W ater,’  Oct. 
13th,  ISGG,  p.  270. 


42 


DOGS. 


Ohai'  I. 


aquatic  animals  which  belong  to  quite  different  orders  have 
webbed  feet,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  tliis  structure  would 
be  serviceable  to  dogs  that  frequent  the  water.  We  may 
conlidently  infer  that  no  man  ever  selected  his  water-dogs 
by  the  extent  to  which  the  skin  was  developed  between  their 
'toes  ; but  what  he  does,  is  to  preserve  and  breed  from  those 
individuals  which  hunt  best  in  the  water,  or  best  retrieve 
wounded  game,  and  thus  he  unconsciously  selects  dogs  with 
feet  slightly  better  webbed.  The  effects  of  use  from  the 
fi-e(}uent  stretching  apart  of  the  toes  will  likewise  aid  in  the 
result.  Man  thus  closely  imitates  Natural  Selection.  We 
hax’o  an  excellent  illustration  ol*  this  same  process  in  North 
America,  where,  according  to  Sir  J.  Eichardson,®^  all  the 
wolves,  foxes,  and  aboriginal  domestic  dogs  have  their  feet 
broader  than  in  the  corresponding  species  of  the  Old  World, 
and  “well  calculated  for  running  on  the  snow.”  Now,  in 
these  Arctic  regions,  the  life  or  death  of  every  animal  will 
often  depend  on  its  success  in  hunting  over  the  snow  when 
soft ; and  this  will  in  pgftff  depend  on  the  feet  being  broad ; 
yet  they  must  not  be  so  broad  as  to  interfere  with  the  activity 
of  the  animal  when  the  ground  is  sticky,  or  with  its  power 
of  burrowing  holes,  or  with  other  necessary  habits  of  life. 

As  changes  in  domestic  breeds  which  take  place  so  slowly 
are  not  to  be  noticed  at  any  one  period,  whether  due  to  the 
selection  of  individual  variations  or  of  differences  resulting 
from  crosses,  are  most  important  in  understanding  the  origin 
of  our  domestic  productions,  and  likewise  in  throwing  indirect 
light  on  the  changes  effected  under  nature,  I will  give  in  detail 
such  cases  as  I have  been  able  to  collect.  Lawrence, who 
paid  particular  attention  to  the  history  of  the  foxhound, 
fvriting  in  1829,  says  that  between  eighty  and  ninety  years 
Defore  “ an  entirely  new  foxhound  was  raised  through  the 
oreeder’s  art,”  the  ears  of  the  old  southern  hound  being 
i-educed,  the  bone  and  bulk  lightened,  the  waist  increased  in 
length,  and  the  stature  somewhat  added  to.  It  is  believed 
that  this  was  effected  by  a cross  with  a greyhound.  With 

‘The  Horse  in  all  his  Varieties^ 
&c.,  1829,  i>p.  230,  234. 


**  ‘Fauna  Bor eali-Americaua,’ 
1829,  p.  62. 


Chap.  L 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


43 


respect  to  this  latter  dog,  Youatt,®^  who  is  generally  cautions 
in  his  statements,  says  that  the  greyhound  within  the  last 
fifty  jmars,  that  is  before  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  “ assumed  a somewhat  different  character  from  that 
which  ho  once  possessed.  He  is  now  distinguished  by  a 
beautiful  symmetry  of  form,  of  which  he  could  not  once 
boast,  and  he  has  even  superior  speed  to  that  which  he 
formerly  exhibited.  He  is  no  longer  used  to  struggle  with 
deer,  but  contends  with  his  fellows  over  a shorter  and 
speedier  course.”  An  able  writer  believes  that  our  English 
greyhounds  are  the  descendants,  progressively  improved,  of  the 
large  rough  gre3diounds  which  existed  in  Scotland  so  early 
as  the  third  century.  A cross  at  some  former  period  with 
the  Italian  greyhound  has  been  suspected ; but  this  seems 
hardly  probable,  considering  the  feebleness  of  this  latter 
breed.  Lord  Orford,  as  is  well  known,  crossed  his  famous 
greyhounds,  which  failed  in  courage,  with  a bulldog — this 
breed  being  chosen  from  being  erroneously  supposed  to  be 
deficient  in  the  power  of  scent ; “ after  the  sixth  or  seventh 
generation,”  says  Youatt,  “ there  was  not  a vestige  left  of 
the  form  of  the  bulldog,  but  his  courage  and  indomitable 
perseverance  remained.” 

Youatt  infers,  from  a comparison  of  an  old  picture  of  King 
Charles’s  spaniels  with  the  living  dog,  that  “ the  breed  of  the 
present  day  is  materially  altered  for  the  worse ;”  the  muzzle 
has  become  shorter,  the  forehead  more  prominent,  and  the  eyes 
larger ; the  changes  in  this  case  have  probably  been  due  to 
simple  selection.  The  setter,  as  this  author  remarks  in  another 
place,  “ is  evidently  the  large  spaniel  improved  to  his  present 
peculiar  size  and  beauty,  and  taught  another  way  of  marking 
his  game.  If  the  form  of  the  dog  were  not  sufficiently  satis- 
factory on  this  point,  we  might  have  recourse  to  history ; ” 
he  then  refers  to  a document  dated  1685  bearing  on  this 
subject;  and  adds  that  the  pure  Irish  setter  shows  no  signs 
of  a cross  with  the  pointer,  which  some  authors  suspect 
has  been  the  case  with  the  English  setter.  The  bulldog  is  an 

‘The  Dog,’  1845,  pp.  31,  35;  In  the  ‘Encyclop.  of  Rural 

with  respect  to  King  Charles’s  spaniel,  Sports,’  p.  557  , 
p.  45 ; for  tltc  setter,  p.  90. 


44 


DOGS. 


Chap.  1 


Englivsh  breed,  and  as  I hear  from  Mr.  G.  E.  Jesse, seems  to 
have  originated  from  the  mastiff  since  the  time  of  Shakspearo ; 
but  certainly  existed  in  1G31,  as  shown  by  Prestwick  Eaton's 
letters.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  fancy  bulldogs  of 
the  present  day,  now  that  they  are  not  used  for  bull-baiting, 
have  become  greatly  reduced  in  size,  without  any  express 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  breeder.  Our  pointers  are 
certainly  descended  from  a Spanish  breed,  as  even  their 
present  names,  Eon,  Ponto,  Carlos,  itc.,  show  ; it  is  said  that 
they  were  not  known  in  England  before  the  Eevolutioii  in 
1688;®*"  but  the  breed  since  its  introduction  has  been  much 
modified,  for  Mr.  Borrow,  who  is  a sportsman  and  knows 
Spain  intimately  well,  informs  me  that  he  has  not  seen  in 
that  country  any  breed  “corresponding  in  figure  with  the 
English  pointer ; but  there  are  genuine  pointers  near  Xeres 
which  have  been  imported  by  English  gentlemen.”  A nearly 
parallel  case  is  offered  by  the  Newfoundland  dog,  which  was 
certainly  brought  into  England  from  that  country,  but  which 
has  since  been  so  much  modified  that,  as  several  writers  have 
observed,  it  does  not  now  closely  resemble  any  existing  native 
dog  in  Newfoundland.^'^ 

These  several  cases  of  slow  and  gradual  changes  in  our 
English  dogs  possess  some  interest ; for  though  the  changes 
have  generally,  but  not  invariably,  been  caused  by  one  or 
two  crosses  with  a distinct  breed,  yet  we  may  feel  sure,  from 
the  well-known  extreme  variability  of  crossed  breeds,  that 
rigorous  and  long-continued  selection  must  have  been  prac- 
tised, in  order  to  improve  them  in  a definite  manner.  As 
soon  as  any  strain  or  family  became  slightly  improved  or 
better  adapted  to  alter  circumstances,  it  would  tend  to 
supplant  the  older  and  less  improved  strains.  For  instance, 
as  soon  as  the  old  foxhound  was  improved  by  a cross  with  the 
greyhound,  or  by  simple  selection,  and  assumed  its  present 


Author  of  ‘ Researches  into  the 
History  of  the  British  Dog. 

See  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  on  the 
iiitiijaity  of  the  Pointer,  in  ‘Nat.  Lib.’ 
vol.  X.  p.  196. 

The  Newfoundland  dog  is  be- 
i«vcd  to  Lave  originated  from  a cross 


between  the  Esquimaux  dog  and  a 
large  French  hound.  See  Dr.  Hodgkin, 
‘Brit.  Assoc.,’  1844;  Bechsteiu’s 
‘Naturgesch.  Deutschland,’  Band.,  i. 
s.  574 ; ‘ Nat.  Lib,,’  vol.  x.  p.  132  ; also 
Mr.  Jukes’  ‘ Excursion  in  and  abou*, 
Newfoundland.’ 


CnAr.  I. 


THE  IK  PARENTAGE. 


45 


rsharacter— and  the  change  was  probably  desired  owing  to 
the  increased  fleetness  of  onr  hunters— it  rapidly  spread 
thronghont  the  country,  and  is  now  everywhere  nearly 
uniform.  But  the  process  of  improvement  is  still  going  on 
for  CA’ery  one  tries  to  improve  his  strain  by  occasionally 
procuring  dogs  from  the  best  kennels.  Through  this  process 
of  gradual  substitution  the  old  English  hound  has  been  lost ; 
and  so  it  has  been  with  the  Irish  wolf-dog,  the  old  English 
bulldog,  and  several  other  breeds,  such  as  the  alaunt,  as  I am 
informed  by  Mr.  Jesse.  But  the  extinction  of  former  breeds 
is  apparently  aided  by  another  cause ; for  whenever  a breed 
is  kept  in  scanty  numbers,  as  at  present  with  the  bloodhound, 
it  is  reared  with  some  difficulty,  apparently  from  the  evil 
effects  of  long-continued  close  interbreeding.  As  several 
breeds  of  the  dog  have  been  slightly  but  sensibly  modified 
within  so  short  a period  as  the  last  one  or  two  centuries,  by 
the  selection  of  the  best  individuals,  modified  in  many  cases 
by  crosses  with  other  breeds ; and  as  we  shall  hereafter  see 
that  the  breeding  of  dogs  was  attended  to  in  ancient  times, 
as  it  still  is  by  savages,  we  may  conclude  that  we  have  in 
selection,  even  if  only  occasionally  practised,  a potent  means 
of  mod  ideation. 


Domestic  Cats. 

Cats  have  been  domesticated  in  the  East  from  an  ancient 
period ; Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that  they  are  mentioned  in  a 
Sanskrit  writing  2000  years  old,  and  in  Egypt  their  antiquity 
is  known  to  be  even  greater,  as  shown  by  monumental  draw- 
ings and  their  mummied  bodies.  These  mummies,  according 
to  De  Blainville,^^  who  has  particularly  studied  the  subject, 
belong  to  no  less  than  three  species,  namely,  F.  caligulatd, 
huhastes,  and  cliaus.  The  two  former  species  are  said  to  bo 
still  found,  both  wild  and  domesticated,  in  parts  of  Egypt. 
F.  caligulata  presents  a difference  in  the  first  inferior  milk 
molar  tooth,  as  compared  with  the  domestic  cats  of  Europe, 
which  makes  De  Blainville  conclude  that  it  is  not  one  of  the 

88  De  Blainville,  ‘ Ostcographie,  other  mummied  species.  He  quotes 
Felis,’  p.  65,  on  the  character  of  F.  Ehrenburg  on  F.  rnaniculata  being 
califjulata;  pp.  85,  89,  90,  175,  on  the  mummied. 


46 


DOMESTIC  CATS. 


Chap.  1. 


pn, rent-forms  of  our  cats.  Several  naturalists,  as  Pallas, 
Temminck,  Blytli,  believe  that  domestic  cats  are  the  descend- 
ants of  t-everal  species  commingled  : it  is  certain  that  cats 
cross  readily  with  various  wild  species,  and  it  would  appear 
that  the  character  of  the  domestic  breeds  has,  at  least  in  some 
'cases,  been  thus  affected.  Sir  W.  Jardine  has  no  doubt  that, 
“ in  the  north  of  Scotland,  there  has  been  occasional  crossing 
with  our  native  species  (F.  sylvesiris),  and  that  the  result  of 
these  crosses  has  been  kept  in  our  houses.  I have  seen,”  he 
adds,  “ many  cats  very  closely  resembling  the  wild  cat,  and 
one  or  two  that  could  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  it.”  Mr. 
Blyth  remarks  on  this  passage,  “ but  such  cats  are  never 
seen  in  the  southern  parts  of  England;  still,  as  compared 
with  any  Indian  tame  cat,  the  affinity  of  the  ordinary  British 
cat  to  F.  sylvestris  is  manifest ; and  due  I suspect  to  frequent 
intermixture  at  a time  when  the  tame  cat  was  first  introduced 
into  Britain  and  continued  rare,  while  the  wild  species  was 
far  more  abundant  than  at  present.”  In  Hungary,  Jeitteles 
was  assured  on  trustworthy  authority  that  a wild  male  cat 
crossed  with  a female  domestic  cat,  and  that  the  hybrids  long 
lived  in  a domesticated  state.  In  Algiers  the  domestic  cat 
has  crossed  with  the  wild  cat  (E.  lyhica)  of  that  countiy.^^ 
In  South  Africa  as  Mr.  E.  Layard  informs  me,  the  domestic 
cat  intermingles  freely  with  the  wild  F.  caffra ; he  has  seen 
a pair  of  hybrids  which  were  quite  tame  and  particularly 
attached  to  the  lady  who  brought  them  up ; and  Mr.  Fry  has 
found  that  these  hybrids  are  fertile.  In  India  the  domestic 
cat,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  has  crossed  with  four  Indian  species. 
With  respect  to  one  of  these  species,  F.  chaus,  aii  excellent 
observer.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  informs  me  that  he  once  killed, 
near  Madras,  a wild  brood,  which  were  evidently  hybrids 
from  the  domestic  cat ; these  young  animals  had  a -thick 
lynx-like  tail  and  the  broad  brown  bar  on  the  inside  of  the 
foreai'in  characteristic  of  F.  chaus.  Sir  W.  Elliot  adds  that  he 

Asiatic  Soc.  of  Calcutta ; Cura-  this  Report  a very  interesting  discus- 
toi’s  Report,  Aug.  1856.  The  passage  sion  on  their  origim. 

from  Sir  W.  Jardine  is  quoted  from  ‘ Fauna  Hungarias  Sup.,’  i.862, 

this  Report.  Mr.  Blyth,  who  has  3.  12. 

“specially  attended  to  the  wild  and  Isid.  GeofFroy  Saint  - Hilaire, 

domestic  cats  of  India,  has  given  in  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  177. 


CF\r.  I. 


THEIE  VAEIATION. 


47 


has  often  observed  this  same  mark  on  the  forearms  of  domestic 
cats  in  India.  Mr.  Blyth  states  that  domestic  cats  coloured 
nearly  like  F.  chaus,  but  not  resembling  that  species  in  shape, 
abound  in  Bengal ; he  adds,  “ such  a colouration  is  utterly 
unknown  in  European  cats,  and  the  proper  tabby  markings 
(pale  streaks  on  a black  ground,  peculiarly  and  symmetrically 
disposed),  so  common  in  English  cats,  are  never  seen  in  those 
of  India.”  Dr.  D.  Short  has  assured  Mr.  Blyth  that,  at 
Hansi,  hybrids  between  the  common  cat  and  F.  ornata  (or 
torquaia)  occur,  “ and  that  many  of  the  domestic  cats  of  that 
part  of  India  were  undistinguishable  from  the  wild  F.  ornata^ 
Azara  states,  but  only  on  the  authority  of  the  inhabitants, 
that  in  Paraguay  the  cat  has  crossed  with  two  native  species. 
From  these  several  cases  we  see  that  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America,  the  common  cat,  which  lives  a freer  life  than 
most  other  domesticated  animals,  has  crossed  with  various 
wild  species ; and  that  in  some  instances  the  crossing  has 
been  sufficiently  frequent  to  affect  the  character  of  the 
breed. 

Whether  domestic  cats  have  descended  from  several  distinct 
species,  or  have  only  been  modified  by  occasional  crosses,  their 
fertility,  as  far  as  is  known,  is  unimpaired.  The  large  Angora 
or  Persian  cat  is  the  most  distinct  in  structure  and  habits 
of  all  the  domestic  breeds ; and  is  believed  by  Pallas,  but  on 
no  distinct  evidence,  to  be  descended  from  the  F.  manul  of 
middle  Asia ; and  I am  assured  by  Mr.  Blyth  that  the  Angora 
cat  breeds  freely  with  Indian  cats,  which,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  ha\  e apparently  been  much  crossed  with  F.  chaus.  In 
England  half-bred  Angora  cats  are  perfectly  fertile  with  one 
another. 

WTthin  the  same  country  we  do  not  meet  with  distinct 
races  of  the  cat,  as  we  do  of  dogs  and  of  most  other  domestic 
animals  ; though  the  cats  of  the  same  country  present  a con- 
siderable amount  of  fluctuating  variability.  The  explanation 
obviously  is  that,  from  their 'nocturnal  and  rambling  habits, 
jni discriminate  crossing  cannot  without  much  trouble  be  pre- 
vented. Selection  cannot  be  brought  into  play  to  produce 
distinct  breeds,  or  to  keep  those  distinct  which  have  been 
‘Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1863,  p.  184. 


48 


DOMESTIC  CATS. 


CUAV.  I 


imported  from  foreign  lands.  On  the  other  hand,  in  islands 
and  in  countries  completely  separated  from  each  other,  we 
meet  with  breeds  more  or  less  distinct ; and  these  cases  are 
worth  giving,  showing  that  the  scarcity  of  distinct  races  in 
tlie  same  country  is  not  caused  by  a deficiency  of  variability 
in  'the  animal.  The  tailless  cats  of  the  Isle  of  Man  are  said 
to  differ  from  common  cats  not  only  in  the  want  of  a tail,  but 
in  the  greater  length  of  their  hind  legs,  in  the  size  of  their 
heads,  and  in  habits.  The  Creole  cat  of  Antigua,  as  I am 
informed  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  is  smaller,  and  has  a more  elon- 
gated head,  than  the  British  cat.  In  Ceylon,  as  Mr.  Thwaites 
writes  to  me,  ever 3^  one  at  first  notices  the  different  appear- 
ance of  the  native  cat  from  the  English  animal ; it  is  of  small 
size,  with  closely  lying  hairs  ; its  head  is  small,  with  a re- 
ceding forehead  ; but  the  ears  are  large  and  sharp  ; altogether 
it  has  what  is  there  called  a “ low-caste  ” appearance.  Eeng- 
ger  says  that  the  domestic  cat,  which  has  been  bred  for 
300  years  in  Paraguay,  presents  a striking  difference  from  the 
European  cat ; it  is  smaller  by  a fourth,  has  a more  lanky 
body,  its  hair  is  short,  shining,  scanty,  and  lies  close,  espe- 
cially on  the  tail : he  adds  that  the  change  has  been  less  at 
Ascension,  the  capital  of  Paraguay,  owing  to  the  continual 
crossing  with  newly  imported  cats;  and  this  fact  well  illus- 
trates the  importance  of  separation.  The  conditions  of  life 
in  Paraguay  appear  not  to  be  highly  favourable  to  the  cat, 
for,  though  tho}^  have  run  half- wild,  they  do  not  become 
thoroughly  feral,  like  so  many  other  European  animals.  In 
another  part  of  South  America,  according  to  Poulin,®^  the 
introduced  cat  has  lost  the  habit  of  uttering  its  hideous 
nocturnal  howl.  The  Eev.  W.  D.  Fox  purchased  a cat  in 
Portsmouth,  which  he  was  told  came  from  the  coast  "of 
Guinea ; its  skin  was  black  and  wrinkled,  fur  bluish  grey 
and  short,  its  ears  rather  bare,  legs  long,  and  whole  aspect 
peculiar.  This  “negro”  cat  was  fertile  wuth  common  cats. 
On  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  at  Mombas,  Captain  Ow’en, 


93  ‘ Saufjethicre  von  Paraguay,’  Savans:  Acad,  Koy.  des  Sciences,’ 

1830,  s.  212.  " tom.  vi.  p.  34(5.  Gomara  first  noticed 

94  ‘ Mem.  presentes  par  divers  this  fact  in  1554. 


Chap.  I. 


TEEIR  VARIATION. 


49 


states  that  all  the  cats  are  covered  with  short  stiff 
hair  instead  of  fur : he  gives  a curious  account  of  a cat  from 
Algoa  Bay,  which  had  been  kept  for  some  time  on  board  and 
could  be  identified  with  certainty ; this  animal  was  left  for 
only  eight  weeks  at  Mombas,  but  during  that  short  period  it 
“ underwent  a complete  metamorphosis,  having  parted  with 
its  sandy-coloured  fur.”  A cat  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
has  been  described  by  Desmarest  as  remarkable  from  a red 
stripe  extending  along  the  whole  length  of  its  back.  Through- 
out an  immense  area,  namely,  the  Malayan  archipelago,  Siam, 
Pegu,  and  Burmah,  all  the  cats  have  truncated  tails  about 
half  the  proper  length,^*^  often  with  a sort  of  knot  at  the  end. 
In  the  Caroline  archipelago  the  cats  have  very  long  legs,  and 
are  of  a reddish-yellow  colour.®'^  In  China  a breed  has  droop- 
ing ears.  At  Tobolsk,  according  to  Gmelin,  there  is  a red- 
coloured  breed.  In  Asia,  also,  we  find  the  well-known  Angora 
or  Persian  breed. 

The  domestic  cat  has  run  wild  in  several  countries,  and 
everywhere  assumes,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  b^^  the  short 
recorded  descriptions,  a uniform  character.  Near  Maldonado, 
in  La  Plata,  I shot  one  which  seemed  perfectly  wild ; it  was 
carefully  examined  by  Mr.  Waterhouse,^^  who  found  nothing 
remarkable  in  it,  excepting  its  great  size.  In  New  Zealand 
according  to  Dieffenbach,  the  feral  cats  assume  a streaky  grey 
colour  like  that  of  wild  cats ; and  this  is  the  case  with  the 
lialf-wild  cats  of  the  Scotch  Highlands. 

We  have  seen  that  distant  -countries  possess  distinct 
domestic  races  of  the  cat.  The  differences  may  be  in  part 
due  to  descent  from  several  aboriginal  species,  or  at  least  to 
crosses  with  them.  In  some  cases,  as  in  Paraguay,  Mombas, 
and  Antigua,  the  differences  seem  due  to  the  direct  action  of 
different  conditions  of  life.  In  other  cases  some  slight  effect 
may  possibly  be  attributed  to  natural  selection,  as  cats  in 

95  ‘ Narrative  of  Voyages,’  vol.  ii. 

p.  180. 

J.  Crawfurd,  ‘ Descript.  Diet,  of 
th-e  Indian  Islands,’  p.  255.  The 
Madagascar  cat  is  said  to  have  a 
twi.sted  tail ; see  Desmarest,  in  ‘ En- 
cyclop.  Nat.  Mamm.,’  1820,  p.  233, 
for  some  of  the  other  breeds. 

5 


Admiral  Lutke’s  Voyage,  vol. 
iii.  p.  308. 

‘Zoology  of  the  Voyage  of  the 
Beagle,  Mammalia,’  p.  20.  Dieffen- 
bach,  ‘Travels  in  New  Zealand,  vol. 
ii.  p.  185.  Ch.  St.  John,  ‘Wild  Sports 
of  the  Highlands,’  1846,  p.  40. 


50 


DOMESTIC  CATS. 


CllAl’.  I 


many  cases  have  largely  to  support  themselves  and  to  escape 
diverse  dangers.  But  man,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  pairing 
cats,  has  done  nothing  by  methodical  selection  ; and  probably 
very  little  by  unintentional  selection  ; though  in  eacli  littei 
he  generally  saves  the  prettiest,  and  values  most  a good  breed 
of  mouse-  or  rat-catchers.  Those  cats  which  have  a strong 
tendency  to  prowl  after  game,  generally  get  destroyed  by 
traps.  As  cats  are  so  much  petted,  a breed  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  other  cats,  that  lapdogs  bear  to  larger  dogs,  would 
have  been  much  valued ; and  if  selection  could  have  been 
applied,  we  should  certainly  have  had  many  breeds  in  each 
long-civilized  country,  for  there  is  plenty  of  variability  to 
work  upon. 

We  see  in  this  country  considerable  diversity  in  size,  some 
in  the  proportions  of  the  body,  and  extreme  variability  in 
colouring.  I have  only  lately  attended  to  this  subject,  but 
have  already  heard  of  some  singular  cases  of  variation ; one 
of  a cat  born  in  the  West  Indies  toothless,  and  remaining  so 
all  its  life.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  shown  me  the  skull  of  a 
female  cat  with  its  canines  so  much  developed  that  they 
protruded  uncovered  beyond  the  lips;  the  tooth  with  the 
fang  being  '95,  and  the  part  projecting  from  the  gum  *6  of 
an  inch  in  length.  I have  heard  of  several  families  of  six- 
toed cats,  in  one  of  which  the  peculiarity  had  been  trans- 
mitted for  at  least  three  generations.  The  tail  varies  greatly 
in  length ; I have  seen  a cat  which  always  carried  its  tail 
flat  on  its  back  when  pleased.  The  ears  vary  in  shape,  and 
certain  strains,  in  England,  inherit  a pencil-like  tuft  of  hairs, 
above  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  on  the  tips  of  their 
ears ; and  this  same  peculiarity,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  cha- 
racterises some  cats  in  India.  The  great  variability  in  the 
length  of  the  tail  and  the  lynx-like  tufts  of  hairs  on  the  ears 
are  apparently  analogous  to  differences  in  certain  wild  species 
of  the  genus.  A much  more  important  difference,  according 
to  Daubenton,®®  is  that  the  intestines  of  domestic  cats  are 
wider,  and  a third  longer,  than  in  wild  cats  of  the  same  size  ; 
and  this  apparentl}^  has  been  by  their  less  strictly  carnivorouH 
diet. 

Qiiotea  by  Isid.  Gecffroy,  ‘ Hist.  Nat  . Gen.,  tom  ni.  p.  427. 


Chap.  IL 


UORSES;  THEIR  VARIATION. 


51 


CIIAPTEE  II. 


HORSES  AND  ASSES. 


HORSE. — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY  OF — 
DIRECrr  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — CAN  WITHSTAND  MUCH  COLD 
— BREEDS  MUCH  MODIFIED  BY  SELECTION — COLOURS  OP  THE  HORSE — 

DAPPLING DARK  STRIPES  ON  THE  SPINE,  LEGS,  SHOULDERS,  AND  FOREHEAD 

— DUN-COLOURED  HORSES  MOST  FREQUENTLY  STRIPED — STRIPES  PROBABLY 
DUE  TO  REVERSION  TO  THE  PRIMITIVE  STATE  OP  THE  HORSE. 

ASSKS. — BREEDS  OF — COLOUR  OP — LEG-  AND  SHOULDER-  STRIPES — SHOULDER- 
STRIPES  SOMETIMES  ABSENT,  SOMETIMES  FORKED. 


The  history  of  the  Horse  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Eemains  of 
this  animal  in  a domesticated  condition  have  been  found  in 
the  SvFiss  lake-dwellings,  belonging  to  the  Neolithic  period.^ 
At  the  present  time  the  number  of  breeds  is  great,  as  may  be 
seen  by  consulting  any  treatise  on  the  Horse. ^ Looking 
only  to  the  native  ponies  of  Great  Britain,  those  of  the 
Shetland  Isles,  Wales,  the  New  Forest,  and  Devonshire  are 
distinguishable ; and  so  it  is,  amongst  other  instances,  with 
each  separate  island  in  the  great  Malay  archipelago.^  Some 
of  the  breeds  present  great  differences  in  size,  shape  of  ears, 
length  of  mane,  proportions  of  the  body,  form  of  the  withers 
and  hind  quarters,  and  especially  in  the  head.  Compare  the 
race-horse,  dray-horse,  and  a Shetland  pony  in  size,  con- 
figuration, and  disposition ; and  see  how  much  greater  the 
difference  is  than  between  the  seven  or  . eight  other  living 
species  of  tlie  genus  Equus. 


• Riitimeyer,  ‘ Fauna  der  Pfahl- 
bauten,’  18dl,  s.  122. 

* See  Youatt  on  the  Horse  : J. 
Lawrence  on  the  Horse,  1829;  W.  C. 
L.  Martin,  ‘ History  of  the  Horse,’ 
184-5;  Col.  H,  Smith,  in  ‘Nat. 
Library,  Horses,’  18+1,  vol.  xii. : 
Prof.  Veith,  ‘ Die  naturgesch.  Haus- 
sangethiere,’  1856. 

® Crawfurd,  ‘ Descript.  Diet,  of 
Indian  Islands,’  1856,  p.  153.  “There 
lie  many  different  breeds,  every 


island  having  at  least  one  peculiar  t<* 
it.”  Thus  in  Sumatra  there  are  at 
least  two  breeds;  in  Achin  and  Batu- 
bara  one ; in  Jai^a  several  breeds ; 
one  in  Bali,  Lomboc,  Sumbawa  (one 
of  the  best  breeds),  Tambora,  Bima, 
Gunung-api,  Celebes,  Sumba,  and 
Philippines.  Other  breeds  are  speci- 
fied by  Zollinger  in  the  ‘ Journal  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago,’  vol.  v.  u.  o43, 
&c. 


52 


HORSES. 


Chap.  1 1 


Of  iudividiial  variations  not  known  to  characterise  par- 
ticular breeds,  and  not  great  or  injurious  enough  to  be  called 
monstrosities,  I have  not  collected  many  cases.  Mr.  Gr.  Brown, 
of  tlie  Cirencester  Agricultural  College,  who  has  particularly 
attended  to  the  dentition  of  our  domestic  animals,  writes  to 
me  that  he  has  “several  times  noticed  eight  permanent 
incisors  instead  of  six  in  the  jaw.”  Male  horses  only 
should  have  canines,  but  they  are  occasionally  found  in  tiie 
mare,  though  a small  size.^  The  number  of  ribs  on  each 
side  is  properly  eighteen,  but  Youatt^  asserts  that  not 
unfrequently  there  are  nineteen,  the  additional  one  being 
always  the  posterior  rib.  It  is  a remarkable  fact  that  the 
ancient  Indian  horse  is  said  in  the  Eig-Yeda  to  have  only 
seventeen  ribs  ; and  M.  Pietrement,®  who  has  called  attention 
to  this  subject,  gives  various  reasons  for  placing  full  trust  in 
this  statement,  more  especially  as  during  former  times  the 
Hindoos  carefully  counted  the  bones  of  animals.  I have  seen 
several  notices  of  variations  in  the  bones  of  the  leg;  thus 
Mr.  Price  ^ speaks  of  an  additional  bone  in  the  hock,  and  of 
certain  abnormal  appearances  between  the  tibia  and  astra- 
galus, as  quite  common  in  Irish  horses,  and  not  due  to  disease. 
Plorses  have  often  been  observed,  according  to  M.  Gaudry,^ 
to  possess  a trapezium  and  a rudiment  of  a fifth  metacarpal 
bone,  so  that  “ one  sees  a];)pearing  by  monstrosity,  in  the  foot 
of  the  horse,  structures  which  normally  exist  in  the  foot  of 
the  Hipparion,” — an  allied  and  extinct  animal.  In  various 
countries  horn-like  projections  have  been  observed  on  the 
frontal  bones  of  the  horse : in  one  case  described  by  Mr. 
Percival  they  arose  about  two  inches  above  the  orbital  pro- 
cesses, and  were  “ very  like  those  in  a calf  from  five  to  six 
months  old,”  being  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length.®  Azara  has  described  two  cases  in  South  America  in 


* ‘The  Horse,’  &c.  by  John  Law- 
rence, 1829,  p.  14. 

® ‘The  Veterinary,’  London,  vol.  v. 
p.  543. 

® ‘Memoire  sur  les  chevaux  a 
trente-quatre  cotes,’  1871. 

^ Proc.  Veterinary  Assoc.,  in  ‘The 
Veterinary,’  vol.  xiii.  p.  42. 

* ‘ Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  Geblog.,’ tom. 


xxii.,  1866,  p.  22. 

® Mr.  Percival,  of  the  Enniskillen 
Dragoons,  in  ‘ The  Veterinary,’  vol.  i. 
p.  224:  see  Azara,  ‘ Des  Quadruples 
du  Paraguay,’  tom.  ii.  p.  313.  The 
French  translator  of  Azara  refers  to 
other  cases  mentioned  by  Hazard  as 
having  occurred  m Spain. 


Chap.  II. 


THEIK  VAKIATION. 


53 


u'liicli  the  projections  were  between  three  and  four  inches  in 
length  : other  instances  have  occurred  in  Spain. 

That  there  has  been  much  inherited  variation  in  the  horse 
cannot  be  doubted,  when  we  reflect  on  the  number . of  the 
breeds  existing  throughout  the  world  or  even  within  the 
same  country,  and  when  we  know  that  they  have  largely 
increased  in  number  since  the  earliest  known  records. Even 
in  so  fleeting  a character  as  colour,  Hofacker  found  that, 
out  of  216  cases  in  which  horses  of  the  same  colour  were 
paired,  only  eleven  pairs  produced  foals  of  a quite  different 
colour.  As  Professor  Low  has  remarked,  the  English  race- 
horse offers  the  best  possible  evidence  of  inheritance.  The 
pedigree  of  a race-horse  is  of  more  value  in  judging  of  its 
probable  success  than  its  appearance  ; “ King  Herod  ” gained 
in  prizes  201,50C<Z.  sterling,  and  begot  497  winners ; ‘‘  Eclipse  ’ 
begot  334  winners. 

Whether  the  whole  amount  of  difference  ^ between  the 
various  breeds  has  arisen  under  domestication  is  doubtful. 
From  the  fertility  of  the  most  distinct  breeds  when  crossed, 
naturalists  have  generally  looked  at  all  the  breeds  as  having 
descended  from  a single  species.  Few  will  agree  with 
Colonel  H.  Smith,  who  believes  that  they  have  descended 
from  no  less  than  five  primitive  and  differently  coloured 
stocks. But  as  several  species  and  varie’ies  of  the  horse 
existed  during  the  later  tertiary  periods,  and  as  Eutimeyer 
found  differences  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  skull  in  the 
earliest  known  domesticated  horses,^®  we  ought  not  to  feel 
sure  that  all  our  breeds  are  descended  from  a single  species. 


Godron,  ‘ De  I’Esp&ce,’  tom.  i. 
p.  378. 

" ‘ Ueber  die  Eigenschaftcn,’  &c., 
1828,  s.  10. 

‘ Domesticated  Animals  of  the 
British  Islands,’  pp.  527,  532.  In  all 
the  veterinary  treatises  and  papers 
which  I have  read,  the  writers  insist 
in  the  strongest  terms  on  the  inherit- 
ance by  the  horse  of  all  good  and  bad 
tendencies  and  qualities.  Perhaps  the 
principle  of  inheritance  is  not  really 
stronger  in  the  horse  than  in  any  other 
animal;  but,  from  its  value,  the 


tendency  has  been  more  carefully 
observed 

Andrew  Knight  crossed  breeds  so 
different  in  size  as  a dray-horse  and 
Norwegian  pony ; see  A.  Walker  on 
‘ Intermarriage,’  1838,  p.  205. 

‘ Nat.  Library,  Horses,’  vol.  xii. 

p.  208. 

Gervais,  ‘Hist.  Nat  Mamm,, 
tom.  ii.  p.  143.  Owen,  ‘ British  Fossil 
Mammals,’  p.  383. 

‘ Kenntniss  der  fossilen  Pferde, 
1863,  s.  131. 


54 


HOKSES. 


Cjiai  . U 


The  savages  of  North  and  South  America  easily  reclaim  the 
feral  horses,  so  that  there  is  no  improbability  in  ravages  in 
various  quarters  of  the  world  having  domesticated  more  than 
one  native  species  or  natural  race.  M.  Sanson  thinks  that 
he  has  proved  that  two  distinct  species  have  been  domesti- 
cated, one  in  the  East,  and  one  in  North  Africa ; and  that 
these  differed  in  the  number  of  their  lumbar  vertebra  and  in 
various  other  parts  ; but  M.  Sanson  seems  to  believe  that  osteo- 
logical  characteis  are  subject  to  very  little  variation,  which 
is  certainly  a mistake.  At  present  no  aboriginal  or  truly 
wild  horse  is  positively  known  to  exist ; for  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  ihe  wild  Inu’ses  of  the  East  are  escaped 
domestic  animals. If  therefore  our  domestic  breeds  are 
descended  from  several  species  or  natural  races,  all  have 
become  extinct  in  the  wild  state. 

With  respect  to  the  causes  of  the  modifications  which 
horses  have  undergone,  the  conditions  of  life  seem  to  produce 
a considerable  direct  effect.  Mr.  D.  Forbes,  who  has  had 
excellent  opportunities  of  comparing  the  horses  of  Spain 
with  those  of  South  America,  informs  me  that  the  horses  of 
Chile,  which  have  lived  under  nearly  the  same  conditions  as 
their  progenitors  in  Andalusia,  remain  unaltered,  whilst  the 
Pampas  horses  and  the  Puno  ponies  are  considerably  modified. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  horses  become  greatly  reduced 
in  size  und  altered  in  appearance  by  living  on  mountains 
and  islands  ; and  this  apparently  is  due  to  want  of  nutritious 
or  varied  food.  Every  one  knows  how  small  and  rugged  the 
ponies  are  on  the  Northern  islands  and  on  the  mountains  of 
Europe.  Corsica  and  Sardinia  have  their  native  ponies  ; and 
there  were,^®  or  still  are,  on  some  islands  on  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  ponies  like  those  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  which 
are  believed  to  have  originated  through  exposure  to  un- 
favourable conditions.  The  Puno  ponies,  which  inhabit  the 


‘ Comptes  rendus,’  p.  485, 

lad  ‘ Journal  de  I’Anat.  et  de  la  Phvs.,’ 
Mai  1868. 

Mr.  W.  C.  L.  Martin  ( ‘ The 
flor.se,’  1845,  p.  34),  in  arguing 
against  the  belief  that  the  wild 
Kastern  horses  are  merely  feral,  has 


remarked  on  the  improbability  of  man 
in  ancient  times  having  e.xtirpated  a 
species  in  a region  where  it  can  now 
exist  in  numbers. 

‘Transact.  Maryl.rnd  A<',ade.my, 
vol.  i.  part  i.  p.  28. 


Chap.  IL 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


55 


lofty  regions  of  the  Cordillera,  are,  as  I hear  from  Mr.  D, 
Forbes,  strange  little  creatures,  very  unlike  their  Spanish 
progenitors.  Further  south,  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  the 
offspring  of  the  horses  imported  in  1764  have  already  so 
inaoh  deteriorated  in  size^°  and  strength  that  they  are  un- 
fitted for  catching  wild  cattle  with  the  lasso ; so  that  fresh 
horses  have  to  be  brought  for  this  purpose  from  La  Plata  at 
a great  expense.  The  reduced  size  of  the  horses  bred  (»n 
both  southern  and  northern  islands,  and  on  several  moun- 
tain-chains, can  hardly  have  been  caused  by  the  cold,  as  a 
similar  reduction  has  occurred  on  the  Virginian  and  Medi- 
terranean islands.  The  horse  can  withstand  intense  cold, 
for  wild  troops  live  on  the  plains  of  Siberia  under  lat.  56°,^^ 
and  aboriginally  the  hoi'ses  must  have  inhabited  countries 
annually  covered  with  snow,  for  he  long  retains  the  instinct 
of  scraping  it  away  to  get  at  the  herbage  beneath.  The 
wild  tarpans  in  the  East  have  this  instinct ; and  so  it  U,  as 
I am  informei  by  Admiral  Sulivan,  with  the  horses  recently 
and  formerly  introduced  into  the  Falkland  Islands  fiom 
La  Plata,  >-ome  of  which  have  run  wild ; this  latter  fact  is 
remarkable,  as  the  progenitors  of  these  horses  could  not  h (ve 
followed  this  instinct  during  many  generations  in  La  Plata. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  wild  cattle  of  the  Falkland s never 
scrape  away  the  snow,  and  perish  when  the  ground  is  long 
covered.  In  the  northern  parts  of  America  the  horses  de- 
scended from  those  introduced  by  the  Spanish  conquerors  of 
Mexico,  have  the  same  habit,  as  have  the  native  bisons,  but 
not  so  the  cattle  introduced  from  Europe. 

The  horse  can  flourish  under  intense  heat  as  well  as  under 
intense  cold,  for  he  is  known  to  come  to  the  highest  perfec- 
tion, though  not  attaining  a large  size,  in  Arabia  and 
northern  Africa.  Much  humidity  is  apparently  more  in- 
jurous  to  the  horse  than  heat  or  cold.  In  the  Falkland 
Islands,  horses  suffer  much  from  the  dampness;  and  this 

Mr.  Mackinnon  on  ‘ The  Falkland  burgh,’  1777,  part  ii.  p 2H5.  With 

.iiands,’  p.  25.  The  average  height  of  respect  to  the  tarpans  scraping  away 

the  Falkland  horses  is  said  to  be  14  the  snow,  fee  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  in 

bands  2 inches.  See  also  my  ‘ Journal  ‘ Nat.  Lib  vol.  xii.  p.  165. 

of  Researches.’  Franklin’s  ‘ Narrative,’  vol.  i.  j) 

Pallas,  ‘Act.  itcad.  Si.  Peters-  87  ; note  by  Sir  J.  Richardson. 


HOUSES. 


ClIAl'.  11. 


f)(j 

circumstance  may  perhaps  partly  account  for  the  singular 
fact  that  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, over  aii 
enormous  and  humid  area,  in  Ava,  Pegu,  Siam,  the  Malayan 
arcliipelago,  the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  and  a large  part  ot 
China,  no  full-sized  hors(j  is  found.  When  we  advance  as 
far  eastward  as  Japan,  the  horse  reacquires  his  full  size.^'^ 

\\  ith  most  of  our  domesticated  animals,  some  breeds  are 
hept  on  account  of  their  curiosity  or  beauty;  but  the  horse 
is  valued  almost  solely  for  its  utility.  Hence  semi-rnonstrous 
breeds  are  not  preserved ; and  probably  all  the  existing 
breeds  have  been  slowly  formed  either  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  conditions  of  life,  or  through  the  selection  of  individual 
differences.  Ko  doubt  semi-monstrous  breeds  might  have 
been  formed  : thus  Mr.  Waterton  records  the  case  of  a mare 
vhich  produced  successively  thi’ee  foals  without  tails ; so 
that  a tailless  race  might  have  been  formed  like  the  tailless 
races  of  dogs  and  cats.  A Russian  breed  of  horses  is  said  to 
have  curled  hair,  and  Azara  relates  that  in  Paraguay 
horses  are  occasionally  born,  but  are  generally  destroyed, 
with  hair  like  that  on  the  head  of  a negro ; and  this  pecu- 
liarity is  transmitted  even  to  half-breeds  : it  is  a curious 
case  of  correlation  that  such  horses  have  short  manes  and 
tails,  and  their  hoofs  are  of  a peculiar  shape  like,  those  of 
a mule. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that  the  long-continued 
selection  of  qualities  serviceable  to  man  has  been  the  chief 
agent  in  the  formation  of  the  several  breeds  of  the  horse. 
Look  at  a dray-horse,  and  see  how  well  ada^^ted  he  is  to  draw 
heavy  weights,  and  how  unlike  in  appearance  to  any  allied 
wild  animal.  The  English  race-horse  is  knoAvn  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  commingled  blood  of  Arabs,  Turks,  and 
Barbs ; but  selection,  which  was  carried  on  during  very  early 

22  Mr.  J.  H.  Mooi’,  ‘ Notices  of  the  Service  Institution,’  vol.  iv. 

Indian  Archipelago  Singapore,  1837,  ‘ Essays  on  Natural  History,’  2n(l 

p.  189.  A pony  from  Java  was  sent  series,  p.  161. 

(‘ Athenasuin,’  1842,  p.  718)  to  tlie  ‘ Qixadru pedes  du  Paraguay,’ 

Queen  only  28  inches  in  height.  For  tom.  ii.  p.  333.  Dr.  Canfield  informs 
the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  see  Beechey’s  ■ me  that  a breed  with  curly  hair  was 
‘ Voyage,’  4th  edit.,  oul.  i.  p.  499.  forrrid  by  selection  at  Los  Angeles  in 

J.  Jrawfnrd,  ‘ History  of  the  No:th  America. 

Horse;’  ‘Journal  of  Royal  United 


ClIAl’.  II. 


THEIE  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


o7 


times  in  England, together  with,  training,  have  made  him  a 
very  different  animal  from  his  parent-stocks.  As  a writer  in 
India,  who  evidently  knows  the  pure  Arab  well,  asks,  who 
now,  “ looking  at  our  present  breed  of  race-horses,  could  have 
conceived  that  they  were  the  result  of  the  union  of  the  Arab 
horse  and  African  mare  ? ” The  improvement  is  so  marked 
that  in  running  for  the  Goodwood  Cup  “ the  first  descendants 
of  Arabian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  horses,  are  allowed  a dis- 
count of  18  lbs.  weight ; and  when  both  parents  are  of  these 
countries  a discount  of  36  Ibs.^®  It  is  notorious  that  the 
Arabs  have  long  been  as  careful  about  the  pedigree  of  their 
horses  as  we  are,  and  this  implies  great  and  continued  care 
in  breeding.  Seeing  what  has  been  done  in  England  by 
careful  breeding,  can  we  doubt  that  the  Arabs  must  likewise 
have  produced  during  the  course  of  centuries  a marked  effect 
on  the  qualities  of  their  horses?  But  we  may  go  much 
farther  back  in  time,  for  in  the  Bible  we  hear  of  studs  care- 
fully kept  for  breeding,  and  of  horses  imported  at  high  prices 
from  various  countries. We  may  therefore  conclude  that, 
whether  or  not  the  various  existing  breeds  of  the  horse  have 
proceeded  from  one  or  more  aboriginal  stocks,  yet  that  a great 
amount  of  change  has  resulted  from  the  direct  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  and  probably  a still  greater  amount  from 
the  long-continued  selection  by  man  of  slight  individual 
differences. 

With  several  domesticated  quadrupeds  and  birds,  certain 
coloured  marks  are  either  stronglj^  inherited  or  tend  to  re- 
appear after  having  been  lost  for  a long  time.  As  this 
subject  will  hereafter  be  seen  to  be  of  importance,  1 will  give 
a full  account  of  the  colouring  of  horses.  All  English  breeds, 


See  the  evidence  on  this  head  in 
' Land  and  Water,’  May  2nd,  1868. 

Prof.  Low,  ‘ Domesticated  Ani- 
mals,’ p.  546.  With  respect  to  the 
writer  in  India,  see  ‘ India  Sporting 
Review,’  vol.  ii.  p.  181.  As  Lawrence 
has  remarked  ( ‘ The  Horse,’  p.  9), 
perha]i.s  no  instance  has  ever  oc- 
curred of  a three-part  bred  horse  {i.e. 
H hi'i'se,  one  of  whose  grandparents 
was  of  impure  blood)  saving  his  dis- 


tance in  running  two  miles  with 
thoroughbred  racers.”  Some  few  in- 
stances are  on  record  of  seven-eights 
racers  having  been  successful. 

Prof.  Gervais  (in  his  ‘Hist.  Nat. 
Mamm.,’  tom.  ii.  p.  1 J-4)  has  collected 
many  facts  on  this  head.  For  instance, 
Solomon  (Kings,  B.  i.  ch.  x.  v.  28) 
bought  horses  in  Egypt  at  a high 
price. 


58 


HORSES. 


Chap.  II 


however  unlike  in  size  and  appearance,  and  several  of  those 
in  India  and  the  Malay  archipelago,  present  a similar  range 
and  diversity  of  colour.  The  English  race-horse,  however, 
is  said  never  to  he  dun-coloured ; hut  as  dun  and  cream- 
coloured  horses  are  considered  hy  the  Arabs  as  worthless, 
“and  fit  only  for  Jews  to  ride,”  these  tints  may  have  heen 
removed  hy  long-continued  selection.  Horses  of  every  colour, 
and  of  such  widely  different  kinds  as  draj-horses,  cohs,  and 
ponies,  are  all  occasionally  dappled,^^  in  the  same  manner  as 
is  so  conspicuous  with  grey  horses.  This  fact  does  not  throw 
any  clear  light  on  the  colouring  of  the  aboriginal  horse,  hut 
is  a case  of  analogous  variation,  for  even  asses  are  sometimes 
dappled,  and  I have  seen,  in  the  British  Museum,  a hybrid 
from  the  ass  and  zebra  dappled  on  its  hinder  quaiters.  By 
the  expression  analogous  variation  (and  it  is  one  that  I 
shall  often  have  occasion  to  use)  I mean  a variation  occurring 
in  a species  or  variety  which  resembles  a normal  character  in 
another  and  distinct  species  or  variety.  Analogous  variations 
may  arise,  as  will  be  explained  in  a future  chapter,  from  two 
or  more  forms  with  a similar  constitution  having  been  ex- 
posed to  similar  conditions,  — or  from  one  of  two  forms  having 
reacquired  through  reversion  a character  inherited  by  the 
other  form  from  their  common  progenitor, — or  from  both 
forms  having  reverted  to  the  same  ancestral  character.  We 
shall  immediately  see  that  horses  occasionally  exhibit  a ten- 
dency to  become  striped  over  a large  part  of  their  bodies ; 
and  as  we  know  that  in  the  varieties  of  the  domestic  cat  and 
in  several  feline  species  stripes  readily  pass  into  spots  and 
cloudy  marks — even  the  cubs  of  the  uniformly-coloured  lion 
being  spotted  with  dark  marks  on  a lighter  ground — wo 
may  suspect  that  the  dappling  of  the  horse,  which  has  been 


‘The  Field,’  July  13th,  1861,  p. 

12. 

E.  Vevnon  Harcourt,  ‘Sporting 
ill  Algeria,’  p.  26. 

I state  this  from  mv  o\vu  obser- 
vations made  during  several  years  ou 
tluf  colours  of  horses.  I have  seen 
eream-coloui'ed,  light-dun  and  mouse- 
diiu  hoiscs  dappled,  whicli  I ineution 


because  it  has  been  stated  (Martiii, 
‘History  of  the  Horse,’  p.  134)  tiiat 
duns  are  never  dapjded.  Martin  (p. 
20j)  refers  to  tlajijiled  asses.  In  the 
Farrier  ’ (l.oudon,  1828,  pp.  453,  455) 
there  are  some  goo  I remarks  on  thr 
dappling  of  horses;  and  likewise  ijj 
Col.  Hamiltou  Smith  on  ‘ the  Hor.so 


Chap.  11. 


THEIE,  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


59 


noticed  by  some  authors  with  surprise,  is  a modification  or 
vestige  of  a tendency  to  become  striped. 

This  tendency  in  the  horse  to  become  striped  is  in  several  respects 
an  interesting  fact.  Horses  of  all  colours,  of  the  most  diverse  breeds, 
)n  various  parts  of  the  world,  often  have  a dark  stripe  extending 
along  the  spine,  from  the  mane  to  the  tail ; but  this  is  so  common 
that  I need  enter  into  no  particulars.^^  Occasionally  horses  are 
traijsversely  barred  on  the  legs,  cliiefly  on  the  under 'side;  andrhore 
rarely  they  have  a distinct  stripe  on  the  shoulder,  like  that  on  the 
shoulder  of  the  ass,  or  a broad  dark  patch  representing  a stripe. 
Before  entering  on  any  details  I must  premise  that  the  term  dun- 
coloured  is  vague,  and  includes  three  groups  of  colours,  viz.,  that 


Pig-  1- — Dun  Devonshire  Pony,  with  shoulder,  spinal,  and  leg  stripes. 


between  cream-colour  and  reddish-brown,  which  graduates  into 
light-bay  or  light-chestnut — this,  I believe  is  often  called  fallow- 
dun  ; secondly,  leaden  or  slate-colour  or  mouse-dun,  which  graduates 
into  an  ash-colour;  and,  lastly,  dark-dun,  between  brown  and  black. 
In  England  I have  examined  a rather  large,  lightly-built,  fallow- 
dun  Devonshire  pony  (fig.  1),  with  a conspicuous  stripe  along  the 
back,  with  light  transverse  stripes  on  the  under  sides  of  its  front 
legs,  and  with  four  parallel  stripes  on  each  shoulder.  Of  these  four 
stripes  the  posterior  one  was  very  minute  and  faint;  the  anterior 
one,  on  the  other  hand,  was  long  and  broad,  but  interrupted  in  Ine 


Some  details  are  given  in  ‘The 
Farrier,’  1828,  pp.  452,  455.  One  of 
the  smallest  ponie?  I ever  saw,  of  the 
colour  of  a mouse,  had  a conspicuous 
spinal  stripe,  A small  Indian  chest- 


nut pony  had  the  same  stripe,  as  had 
a remarkably  heavy  chestnut  cart- 
horse. Race-horses  often  have  the 
spinal  stripe. 


HORSES. 


Ohai>.  II 


BO 


middle,  and  truncated  at  its  lower  extremity,  with  tlie  anteriof 
angle  produced  into  a long  tapering  point,  1 mention  this  latter 
fact  liecause  the  shoulder- stripe  of  the  ass  occasionally  presents 
exactly  the  same  appearance.  I have  had  an  outline  and  description 
gent  to  me  of  a small,  purely-bred,  light  fallow-dun  Welch  pony, 
with  a spinal  stripe,  a single  transverse  stripe  on  each  leg,  and  three 
shoulder-stripes;  the  posterior  stripe  corresponding  with  that  on 
the  shoulder  of  the  ass  was  the  longest,  whilst  the  two  anterior 
parallel  stripes,  arising  from  the  mane,  decreased  in  length,  in  a 
reversed  manner  as  compared  with  the  shoulder -stripes  on  the 
above-described  Devonshire  pony.  I have  seen  a bright  fallow-dun 
cob,  with  its  front  legs  transversely  barred  on  the  under  sides  in  the 
most  conspicuous  manner;  also  a dark-leadm  mouse -coloured  pony 
with  similar  leg  stripes,  but  much  less  conspicuous ; also  a bright 
fallow- dun  colt,  fully  three-parts  thoroughbred,  with  very  plain 
transvere  stripes  on  the  legs ; also  a chestnut-dun  cart-horse  with 
a conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  with  distinct  traces  of  shoulder-stripes, 
but  none  on  the  legs;  I could  add  other  cases.  My  son  made  a 
sketch  for  me  of  a large,  heavy,  Belgian  cart-horse,  of  a fallow-dun, 
with  a conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  traces  of  leg-stripes,  and  with  two 
parallel  (three  inches  apart)  stripes  about  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
length  on  both  shoulders.  I have  seen  another  rather  light  cart- 
horse, of  a dirty  dark  cream-colour,  with  striped  legs,  and  on  one 
shoulder  a large  ill-defined  dark  cloudy  patch,  and  on  the  opposite 
shoulder  two  parallel  faint  stripes.  All  the  cases  yet  mentioned  are 
duns  of  various  tints;  but  Mr.  W.  W,  Edwards  has  seen  a nearly 
thoroughbred  chestnut  horse  which  had  the  spinal  strifie.  and 
distinct  bars  on  the  legs;  and  I have  seen  two  bay  carriage-horses 
with  black  spinal  stripes;  one  of  these  horses  had  on  each  shouldei' 
a light  shoulder-stripe,  and  the  other  had  a broad  back  ill-defined 
stripe,  running  obliquely  half-way  down  each  shoulder ; neither  had 
leg-stripes. 

The  most  interesting  case  which  I have  met  with  occurred  in  a 
colt  of  my  own  breeding.  A bay  mare  (descended  from  a dark- 
brown  Flemish  mare  by  a light  grey  Turcoman  horse)  was  put  to 
Hercules,  a thoroughbred  dark  bay,  whose  sire  (Kingston)  and  dam 
were  both  bays.  The  colt  ultimately  turned  out  brown ; but  when 
only  a fortnight  old  it  was  a dirty  bay,  shaded  with  mouse-grey, 
•and  in  parts  with  a yellowish  tint : it  had  only  a trace  of  the  spinal 
stripe,  with  a few  obscure  transverse  bars  on  the  legs ; but  almost 
the  whole  body  was  marked  with  verv  narrow  dark  stripes,  in  most 
parts  so  obscure  as  to  be  visible  only  in  certain  lights,  like  the 
stripes  which  may  be  seen  on  black  kittens.  These  stripes  were 
distinct  on  the  hind-quarters,  where  they  diverged  from  the  spine, 
and  pointed  a litile  forwards;  many  of  them  as  they  diverged 
became  a little  branched,  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  in  some 
?:(3brine  species.  The  stripes  were  plainest  on  the  forehead  between 
the  ears,  where  they  formed  a set  of  pointed  arches,  one  under 
the  other,  decreasing  in  size  downwards  towards  the  muzzle; 
exactly  similar  marks  ma.y  bo  seen  on  the  forehead  of  the  quagga 


Chap.  II. 


THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


61 


and  BurcheH’s  zebra.  When  this  foal  was  two  or  three  months  old 
all  the  stripes  entirely  disappeared.  I have  seen  similar  marks  on 
the  forehead  of  a fully  grown,  fallow-dun,  cob-like  horse,  having 
a conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  and  with  its  front  legs  well  barred. 

In  Norway  the  colour  of  the  native  horse  or  pony  is  dnn,  varying 
from  almost  cream-colour  to  dark-mouse  dun;  and  an  animal  is  not 
considered  purely  bred  unless  it  has  the  spinal  and  leg-stripes.^^ 
My  son  estimated  that  about  a third  of  the  ponies  which  he  saw 
there  had  striped  legs;  he  counted  seven  stripes  on  the  fore-legs  and 
cwo  on  the  hind-legs  of  one  pony ; only  a few  of  them  exhibited 
traces  of  shoulder  stripes  ; but  I have  heard  of  a cob  imported  from 
Norway  which  had  the  shoulder  as  well  as  the  other  stripes  well 
developed.  Colonel  H.  Smith  alludes  to  dun-horses  with  the 
spinal  stripe  in  the  Sierras  of  Spain;  and  the  horses  originally 
derived  from  Spain,  in  some  parts  of  South  America,  are  now  duns. 
Sir  W.  Elliot  informs  me  that  he  inspected  a herd  of  300  South 
American  horses  imported  into  Madras,  and  many  of  these  had 
transverse  stripes  on  the  legs  and  short  shoulder-stripes;  the  most 
strongly  marked  individual,  of  which  a coloured  drawing  was  sent 
me,  was  a mouse-dun,  with  the  shoulder- stripes  slightly  forked. 

In  the  North-Western  parts  of  India  striped  horses  of  more  than 
one  breed  are  apparently  commoner  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world;  and  I have  received  information  respecting  them  from 
several  officers,  especially  from  Colonel  Poole,  Colonel  Curtis,  Major 
Campbell,  Brigadier  St.  John,  and  others.  The  Kattywar  horses 
are  often  fifteen  or  sixteen  hands  in  height,  and  are  well  but  lightly 
built.  They  are  of  all  colours,  but  the  several  kinds  of  duns  prevail ; 
and  these  are  so  generally  striped,  that  a horse  without  stripes  is 
not  considered  pure.  Colonel  Poole  believes  that  all  the  duns  have 
the  spinal  stripe,  the  leg-stripes  are  generally  present,  and  he  thinks 
that  about  half  the  horses  have  the  shoulder-stripe ; this  stripe  is 
sometimes  double  or  treble  on  both  shoulders.  Colonel  Poole  has 
often  seen  stripes  on  the  cheeks  and  sides  of  the  nose.  He  has  seen 
stripes  on  the  grey  and  bay  Kattywars  when  first  foaled,  but  they 
soon  faded  away.  I have  received  other  accounts  of  cream-coloured, 
bay,  brown,  and  grey  Kattywar  horses  being  striped.  Eastward  of 
India,  the  Shan  (north  of  Burmah)  ponies,  as  I am  informed  by 
Mr.  Blyth,  have  spinal,  leg,  and  shoulder  stripes.  Sir  W.  Elliot 
informs  me  that  he  saw  two  bay  Pegu  ponies  with  leg-stripes. 
Burmese  and  Javanese  ponies  are  frequently  dun-coloured,  and  have 
the  three  kinds  of  stripes,  “in  the  same  degree  as  in  England.”^® 
Mr.  Swinhoe  informs  me  that  he  examined  two  light-dun  ponies  ol 


I have  received  information, 
through  the  kindness  of  the  Consul- 
General,  Mr.  J.  R.  Crowe,  from  Prof. 
Boeck,  Rasck,  and  Esmarck,  on  the 
colours  of  the  Norwegian  ponies.  See 
also  ‘The  Field,’  1861,  p.  431 

Col.  Hamilton  Smith,  ‘ Nat.  Lib. 


vol.  xii.  p.  275. 

Mr.  G.  Clark,  in  ‘ Annal  and  l^Iag. 
of  Nat.  History,’  2nd  series,  vol.  ii 
1848,  p.  363.  Mr.  Wallace  informs 
me  that  he  saw  in  Java  a dun  and 
clay-coloured  horse  with  spinal  and 
leg  strij[>es. 


HORSES. 


Ciiii-.  IL 


02 


two  Chinese  breeds,  viz.  those  of  Shanghai  and  Amoy ; both  had  the 
spinal  stripe,  and  the  latter  an  indistinct  shoulder-stripe. 

We  thus  see  that  in  all  parts  of  the  world  breeds  of  the  horse  as 
different  as  possible,  when  of  a dun-colour  (iacluding  under  this 
term  a wide  range  of  tint  from  cream  to  dusty  black),  and  rarely 
when  almost  white  tinged  with  yellow,  grey,  bay.  and  chestnut,  have 
the  several  above-specified  stripes.  Horses  which  are  of  a yellow 
colour  with  white  mane  and  tail,  and  which  are  sometimes  called 
duns,  I have  never  seen  with  stripes.^^ 

From  reasons  which  will  be  apjDarent  in  the  chapter  on  Eeversion, 
I have  endeavoured,  but  with  poor  success,  to  discover  whether 
duns,  which  are  so  much  oftener  striped  than  other  coloured  horses, 
are  ever  produced  from  the  crossing  of  two  horses,  neither  of  which 
are  duns.  Most  persons  to  whom  I have  applied  believe  that  one 
parent  must  be  dun;  and  it  is  generally  asserted,  that,  when  this  is 
the  case,  the  dun-colour  and  the  stripes  are  strongly  inherited.^* 
One  case,  however,  has  fallen  under  my  own  observation  of  a 
foal  from  a black  mare  by  a bay  horse,  which  when  fully  grown 
was  a da]’k  fallow-dun  and  had  a narrow  but  plain  spinal 
stripe.  Hofacker  gives  two  instances  of  mouse-duns  (Mausrap])) 
being  produced  from  two  parents  of  different  colours  and  neither 
duns. 

The  stripes  of  all  kinds  are  generally  plainer  in  the  foal  than  in 
the  adult  horse,  being  commonly  lost  at  the  firs+  stiedding  of  the 
hair.^^  Colonel  Poole  believes  that  “the  stripes  in  the  Kattywar 
breed  are  plainest  when  the  colt  is  first  foaled ; they  then  become 
less  and  less  distinct  till  after  the  first  coat  is  shed,  when  they  come 
out  as  strongly  as  before ; but  certainly  often  fade  away  as  the  age 
of  the  horse  increases.”  Two  other  accounts  confirm  this  fading  of 
the  stripes  in  old  horses  in  India.  One  writer,  on  the  other  hand, 
states  that  colts  are  often  born  without  stripes,  but  that  they  appear 
as  the  colt  grows  older.  Three  authorities  affirm  that  in  Norway 
the  stripes  are  less  plain  in  the  foal  than  in  the  adult.  In  the  case 
described  by  me  of  the  young  foal  which  Avas  narroAvly  striped  over 
nearly  all  Its  body,  there  was  no  doubt  about  the  early  and  complete 
disappearance  of  the  stripes.  Mr.  W.  W.  Echvards  examined  for 
me  twenty-two  foals  of  race-horses,  and  twelve  had  the  spinal  stripe 
more  or  less  plain;  this  fact,  and  some  other  accounts  which  I have 
received,  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  spinal  stripe  often  disappears  in 
the  English  race-horse  when  old.  With  natural  species,  the  young 
often  exhibit  characters  which  disappear  at  maturity. 

The  stripes  are  variable  in  colour,  but  are  always  darker 
than  the  rest  of  the  body.  They  do  not  by  any  means  always 

See,  also,  on  this  point,  * The  ‘ Uebev  die  Eigenschaften,’  &c., 

Field,’  July  27th,  1861,  p.  91.  1828,  s.  13,  14. 

**  ‘Tlie  Field,’  1861,  pp.  431,  493  ‘‘®  Von  Nathusius,  ‘Vortrage  iib<*i 

&45.  Viehzucht,’  1872,  135 


Chai>.  11. 


THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


63 


coexist  on  the  different  parts  of  the  body : the  legs  may  he 
striped  without  any  shoulder-stripe,  or  the  converse  case, 
which  is  rarer,  may  occur ; but  I have  never  heard  of  either 
shoulder  or  leg-stripes  without  the  spinal  stripe.  The  lat  ter  is 
by  far  the  commonest  of  all  the  stripes,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  as  it  characterises  the  other  seven  or  eight  species 
of  the  genus.  It  is  remarkable  that  so  trifling  a character  as 
the  shoulder-stripe  being  double  or  triple  should  occur  in 
such  different  breeds  as  Welch  and  Devonshire  ponies,  the 
Shan  pony,  heavy  cart-horses,  light  South  American  horses, 
and  the  lanky  Kattywar  breed.  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith 
believes  that  one  of  his  five  supposed  primitive  stocks  was 
dun- coloured  and  striped ; and  that  the  stripes  in  all  the 
other  breeds  result  from  ancient  crosses  with  this  one  primi- 
tive dun;  but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  different 
breeds  living  in  such  distant  quarters  of  the  world  should  all 
have  been  crossed  with  any  one  aboriginally  distinct  stock. 
Nor  have  we  any  reason  to  believe  that  the  effects  of  a cross 
at  a very  remote  period  would  be  propagated  for  so  many 
generations  as  is  implied  on  this  view. 

With  respect  to  the  primitive  colour  of  the  horse  having 
been  dun,  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  has  collected  a large 
body  of  evidence  showing  that  this  tint  was  common  in  the 
East  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  that  the  wild 
horses  of  Western  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe  now  are,  or  re- 
cently were,  of  various  shades  of  dun.  It  seems  that  not  very 
long  ago  a wild  breed  of  dun-coloured  horses  with  a spinal 
stripe  was  preserved  in  the  royal  parks  in  Prussia.  I hear 
from  Hungary  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  look  at 
the  duns  with  a spinal  stripe  as  the  aboriginal  stock,  and  so 
it  is  in  Norway.  Dun-coloured  ponies  are  not  rare  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Devonshire,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  where 
the  aboriginal  breed  would  have  the  best  chance  of  being 


“ ‘Nat.  Library,’  vol.  xii.  (1841), 
p[).  109,  156  to  163,  *280,  281.- 
Cream-colour,  passing  into  Isabella 
(i.e.  the  colour  of  the  dirty  linen  of 
Queen  Isabella),  seems  to  have  been 
stimmon  in  ancient  times.  See  also 
Pallas *3  account  of  the  wild  horses  of 


the  East,  who  speaks  of  dun  and  brown 
as  the  prevalent  colours.  In  the 
Icelandic  sagas,  which  were  committed 
to  writing  in  the  twelfth  century, 
dun-coloured  horses  with  a black 
spinal  stripe  are  mentioned;  see 
Dasent’s  translation,  vol.  i.  p.  169 


6i 


HORSES. 


Chap.  II 


preserved.  In  South  America  in  the  time  of  Azara,  when 
the  horse  had  been  feral  for  about  250  years,  90  out  of  a 100 
horses  were  “ bai-chatains,”  and  the  remaining  ten  were 
“ zains,”  that  is  brown ; not  more  than  one  in  2000  being 
black.  In  North  America  the  feral  horses  show  a strong 
tendency  to  become  roans  of  various  shades ; but  in  certai  u 
parts,  as  I hear  from  Dr.  Canfield,  they  are  mostly  duns  an 
striped. 

In  the  following  chapters  on  the  Pigeon  we  shall  see  tliat  a 
blue  bird  is  occasionally  produced  by  pure  breeds  of  various 
colours  and  that  when  this  occurs  certain  black  marks  in- 
variably appear  on  the  wings  and  tail ; so  again,  when  vari- 
ously coloured  breeds  are  crossed,  blue  birds  with  the  same 
black  marks  are  frequently  produced.  We  shall  further  see 
that  these  facts  are  explained  by,  and  afford  strong  evidence 
in  favour  of,  the  view  that  all  the  breeds  are  descended 
from  the  rock-pigeon,  or  Columha  livia,  which  is  thus  coloured 
and  marked.  But  the  appearance  of  the  stri23es  on  the 
various  breeds  of  the  horse,  when  of  a dun  colour,  does  not 
afford  nearly  such  good  evidence  of  their  descent  from  a 
single  primitive  stock  as  in  the  case  of  the  joigeon  : because 
no  horse  certainly  wild  is  known  as  a standard  of  comparison ; 
because  the  stripes  when  they  ap2)ear  are  variable  in  cha- 
racter ; because  there  is  far  from  sufficient  evidence  that  the 
crossing  of  distinct  breeds  produces  stripes,  and  lastly, 
because  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Equus  ha\  e the  spinal 
stripe,  and  several  species  have  shoulder  and  leg  stripes. 
Nevertheless  the  similarity  in  the  most  distinct  breeds  in 
their  general  range  of  colour,  in  their  dappling,  and  in  the 
occasional  appearance,  especially  in  duns,  of  leg-stripes  and 
of  double  or  triple  shoulder  strijoes,  taken  together,  indicate 


Azara,  ‘ Quadnipedos  du  Para- 
guay,’ tom.  ii.  p.  307.  In  North 
America,  Gatlin  (vol.  ii.  p.  57)  de- 
scribes the  wild  horsesj  believed  to 
have  descended  from  the  Spanish 
horses  of  Me.xico,  as  of  all  colours, 
black,  grey,  roan,  and  roan  pied  with 
sorrel.  F.  Michaux  ( ‘ Travels  in 
North  America,’  Eng.  translat.,  p.  235) 


describes  two  wild  horses  from  Mexico 
as  roau.  In  the  Falkland  Islands, 
where  the  horse  has  been  feral  only 
between  60  and  70  years,  I was  told 
that  roans  and  iron-greys  were  the 
prevalent  colours.  These  several  facts 
show  that  horses  do  not  soon  revert 
to  any  uniform  colour. 


Chat  IL  ASSES  : THEIll  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


65 


the  probability  of  the  descent  of  all  the  existing  races  from  a 
single,  dun-coloured,  more  or  less  striped,  primitive  stock,  to 
which  our  horses  occasionally  revert. 


The  Ass. 

Four  species  of  Asses,  besides  three  zebras,  have  been  de- 
scribed by  naturalists.  There  is  now  little  doubt  that  our 
domesticated  animal  is  descended  from  the  Equus  tceniojpus  of 
Abyssinia.^^  The  ass  is  sometimes  advanced  as  an  instance 
of  an  animal  domesticated,  as  we  know  by  the  Old  Testament, 
from  an  ancient  period,  which  has  varied  only  in  a very  slight 
degree.  But  this  is  by  no  means  strictly  true;  for  in  Syria 
alone  there  are  four  breeds  first,  a light  and  graceful 
animal,  with  an  agreeable  gait,  used  by  ladies ; secondly, 
an  Arab  breed  reserved  exclusively  for  the  saddle;  thirdly, 
a stouter  animal  used  for  ploughing  and  various  purposes  ; 
and  lastly,  the  large  Damascus  breed,  with  a peculiarly  long 
body  and  ears.  In  the  South  of  France  also  there  are  several 
breeds,  and  one  of  extraordinary  size,  some  individuals  being 
as  tall  as  full-sized  horses.  Although  the  ass  in  England  is 
by  no  means  uniform  in  appearance,  distinct  breeds  have  not 
been  formed.  This  may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the 
animal  being  kept  chiefly  by  poor  j)ersons,  who  do  not  rear 
large  numbers,  nor  carefully  match  and  select  the  young. 
For,  as  we  shall  see  in  a future  chapter,  the  ass  can  with 
ease  be  greatly  improved  in  size  and  strength  by  careful 
selection,  combined  no  doubt  with  good  food ; and  we  may 
infer  that  all  its  other  characters  would  be  equally  amend- 
able to  selection.  The  small  size  of  the  ass  in  England  and 
Northern  Europe  is  apparently  due  far  ‘more  to  want  of  care 
in  breeding  than  to  cold ; for  in  Western  India,  where  the  ass 
is  used  as  a beast  of  burden  by  some  of  the  lower  castes,  it  is 
not  much  larger  than  a Newfoundland  dog,  “being  generally 
not  more  than  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  high.” 


43  Dr.  Sclater,  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’ 
1862,  p.  164.  Dr.  Hartmann  says 
(‘Annalen  der  Landw.,’  B.  xliv.  p. 
222)  that  this  animal  in  its  wild  state 
is  not  always  striped  across  the 
legs. 

® G 


44  W.  C.  Martin,  ‘History  of  the 
Horse,’  1845,  p.  207. 

45  Col.  Sykes’  Cat.  of  Mammalia, 
‘Proc.  Zooiog.  Soc.,’  July  12th,  1831. 
Williamson,  ‘Oriental  Field  Sports,’ 
vol.  ii.,  quoted  by  Martin,  p.  206. 


(>() 


ASSES  : 


CllAl'.  11 


The  ass  varies  greatly  in  colour ; and  its  legs,  especially 
the  fore-legs,  both  in  England  and  other  countries — for 
instance,  in  China — are  occasionally  barred  more  plainly 
than  those  of  dun-coloured  horses.  Thirteen  or  fourteen 
transverse  stripes  have  been  counted  on  both  the  fore  and 
bind  legs.  With  the  horse  the  occasional  ajopearance  of  leg- 
stripes  was  accounted  for  by  reversion  to  a supposed  parent- 
form,  and  in  the  case  of  the  ass  we  may  confidently  believe  in 
this  explanation,  as  E.  tceniopus  is  known  to  be  barred,  though 
only  in  a slight  degree,  and  not  quite  invariably.  The  stripes 
are  believed  to  occur  most  frequently  and  to  be  plainest  on 
the  legs  of  the  domestic  ass  during  early  youth, as  likewise 
occurs  with  the  horse.  The  shoulder-stripe,  which  is  so  emi 
nently  characteristic  of  the  species,  is  nevertheless  variable 
in  breadth,  length,  and  manner  of  termination.  I have 
measured  one  four  times  as  broad  as  another,  and  some  more 
than  twice  as  long  as  others.  In  one  light-grey  ass  the 
shoulder-stripe  was  only  six  inches  in  length,  and  as  thin  as 
a piece  of  string ; and  in  another  animal  of  the  same  colour 
there  was  only  a dusky  shade  representing  a stripe.  I have 
heard  of  three  white  asses,  not  albinoes,  with  no  trace  of 
shoulder  or  spinal  stripes  and  I have  seen  nine  other  asses 
with  no  shoulder  stripe,  and  some  of  them  had  no  spinal 
stripe.  Three  of  the  nine  were  light-grej^s,  one  a dark-grey, 
another  giey  passing  into  reddish-roan,  and  the  others  were 
brown,  two  being  tinted  on  parts  of  their  bodies  with  a 
reddish  or  bay  shade.  If  therefore  grey  and  reddish-brown 
asses  had  been  steadily  selected  and  bred  from,  the  shoulder 
stripe  would  probably  have  been  lost  almost  as  generally  and 
completely  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse. 

The  shoulder  stripe  on  the  ass  is  sometimes  double,  and 
]\Ir.  Blyth  has  seen  even  three  or  four  parallel  stripes.^^  ] 
have  observed  in  ten  cases  shoulder-sfripes  abruptly  trun 
cated  at  the  lower  end,  with  the  anterior  angle  produced  into 
a tapering  point,  precisely  as  in  the  above  dun  Devonshire 

Blyth,  in  ‘ Charlesworth’s  Mag.  ‘ The  Horse,’  p.  205. 
of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol  iv.,  18-10,  p.  88.  I ‘ Journal  As  Soc.  of  Bengal.’  vol 

have  also  been  assured  by  a breeder  xxviii.  1860,  p.  231.  Martin  on  tin? 

that  this  is  the  case.  Horse,  p.  205 

Oue  case  is  gi\-on  l.y  Marlin. 


Chai’.  II. 


TIJEIE  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


67 


pony.  1 have  seen  three  cases  of  the  terminal  portion 
abruptl}^  and  angularly  bent ; and  have  seen  and  heard  of 
four  cases  of  a distinct  though  slight  forking  of  the  stripe. 
In  Syria,  Dr.  Hooker  and  his  party  observed  for  me  no  less 
than  five  similar  instances  of  the  shoulder-stripe  plainly* 
bifurcating  over  the  fore  leg.  In  the  common  mule  it  like- 
wise sometimes  bifurcates.  When  I first  noticed  the  forking 
and  angular  bending  of  the  shoulder-stripe,  I had  seen  enough 
of  the  stripes  in  the  various  equine  species  to  feel  convinced 
that  even  a character  so  unimportant  as  this  had  a distinct 
meaning,  and  was  thus  led  to  attend  to  the  subject.  I now 
find  that  in  the  E.  hurcliellU  and  quagga,  the  stripe  which 
corresponds  with  the  shoulder-stripe  of  the  ass,  as  well  as 
some  of  the  stripes  on  the  neck,  bifurcate,  and  that  some  of 
those  near  the  shoulder  have  their  extremities  bent  angularl}^ 
backwards.  The  bifurcation  and  angular  bending  of  the 
stripes  on  the  shoulders  apparently  are  connected  v/ith  the 
nearly  upright  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  neck 
changing  their  direction  and  becoming  transverse  on  the  legs. 
Finally,  we  see  that  the  presence  of  shoulder,  leg,  and  spinal 
stripes  in  the  horse, — their  occasional  absence  in  the  ass, — 
the  occurrence  of  double  and  triple  shoulder-stripes  in  both 
animals,  and  the  similar  manner  in  which  these  stripes  ter- 
minate downwards,— are  all  cases  of  analogous  variation  in 
the  horse  and  ass.  These  cases  are  probably  not  due  to 
similar  conditions  acting  on  similar  constitutions,  but  to  a 
partial  reversion  in  colour  to  the  common  progenitor  of  the 
genus.  We  shall  hereafter  return  to  this  subject,  and  discuss 
it  more  fully. 


68 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


Chap.  Ill 


CHAPTER  III. 

PIGS — CATTLE — SHEEP — GOATS. 

PKJS  BELONG  TO  TWO  DISTINCT  TYPES,  SUS  SOROFA  AND  INDICES- -TORF' 
SCHWEIN — ^JAPAN  PIGS — FERTILITY  OF  CROSSED  PIGS — CHANGES  IN  TUB 
SKULL  OF  THE  HIGHLY  CULTIVATED  RACES — CONVERGENCE  OF  CHARACTEP. 
— GESTATION—  SOLID-HOOFED  SWINE — CURIOUS  APPENDAGES  TO  THE  JAWS 
— DECREASE  IN  SIZE  OP  THE  TUSKS — YOUNG  PIGS  LONGITUDINALLY  STRIPED 
— FERAL  PIGS — CROSSED  BREEDS. 

C.\TTLB. — ZEBU  A DISTINCT  SPECIES — EUROPEAN  CATTLE  PROBABLY  DE- 
SCENDED FROM  THREE  WILD  FORMS — ALL  THE  RACES  NOW  FERTILE  TOGETHER 
— BRITISH  PARK  CATTLE — ON  THE  COLOUR  OP  THE  ABORIGINAL  SPECIES — 
CONSTITUTIONAL  DIFFERENCES — SOUTH  AFRICAN  RACES — SOUTH  AMERICAN 
RACES — NIATA  CATTLE — ORIGIN  OF  THE  VARIOUS  RACES  OF  CATTLE. 
SHEEP. — REMARKABLE  RACES  OP — VARIATIONS  ATTACHED  TO  THE  MALE  SEX 
— ADAPTATIONS  TO  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS — GESTATION  OF — CHANGES  IN  THE 
WOOL — SEMI-MONSTROUS  BREEDS. 

GOATS. — REMARKABLE  VARIATIONS  OF. 

The  breeds  of  the  pig  have  recently  been  more  closely  studied, 
thougli  much  still  remains  to  be  done,  than  those  of  almost  any 
other  domesticated  animal.  This  has  been  effected  by  Her- 
mann von  Nathnsius  in  two  admirable  works,  especially  in  the 
later  one  on  the  Skulls  of  the  several  races,  and  by  Eiitimeyer 
in  his  celebrated  Pauna  of  the  ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellings.^ 
Nathusius  has  shown  that  all  the  known  breeds  may  be 
divided  into  two  great  groups : one  resembling  in  all  im- 
portant respects  and  no  doubt  descended  from  the  common 
wild  boar ; so  that  this  may  be  called  the  Sus  scrofa  group, 
dhie  Other  group  differs  in  several  important  and  constant 
nsteological  characters;  its  wild  parent-form  is  unknown; 
the  name  given  to  it  by  ^^athusius,  according  to  the  law  of 
priority,  is  Siis  indicus,  of  Pallas.  This  name  must  now  be 
followed,  though  an  unfortunate  one,  as  the  wild  aboriginal 


* Hermann  von  Nathusms,  ‘Die  ‘Schweineschadel,’ Berlin,  1864.  Riiti- 
Racen  des  Schweines,’  Berlin,  1860  ; meyer,  ‘ Die  Fauna  der  ' Pfahlbauteu, 
ami  ‘ Vorstudien  fiir  Geschichte,’  &c.,  Basel,  1801. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


69 


does  not  inhabit  India,  and  the  best -known  domesticated 
breeds  have  been  imported  from  Siam  and  China. 

First  for  the  Sus  scrofa  breeds,  or  those  resembling  the 
common  wild  boar.  These  still  exist,  according  to  Nathusia^ 
(Schweineschadel,  s.  75),  in  various  parts  of  central  and 
northern  Europe ; formerly  every  kingdom,^  and  almost 
every  province  in  Britain,  possessed  its  own  native  breed ; 
but  these  are  now  eveiywhere  rapidly  disappearing,  being 
replaced  by  improved  breeds  crossed  with  the  S.  indicus 
form.  The  skull  in  the  breeds  of  the  S.  scrofa  type  re- 
sembles, in  all  important  respects,  that  of  the  European  wild 
boar ; but  it  has  become  (Schweineschadel,  s.  63-68)  higher 
and  broader  relatively  to  its  length ; and  the  hinder  part  is 
more  upright.  The  differences,  however,  are  all  variable  in 
degree.  The  breeds  which  thus  resemble  S.  scrofa  in  their 
essential  skulTcharacters  differ  conspicuously  from  each  other 
in  other  respects,  as  in  the  length  of  the  ears  and  legs,  cur- 
vature of  the  ribs,  colour,  hairiness,  size  and  proportions  of 
the  body. 

The  wild  Sus  scrofa  has  a wide  range,  namely,  Europe, 
Korth  Africa,  as  identified  by  osteological  characters  by  Eiiti- 
meyer,  and  Hindostan,  as  similiarly  identified  by  Nathusius. 
But  the  wild  boars  inhabiting  these  several  countries  differ 
so  much  from  each  other  in  external  characters,  that  they  have 
been  ranked  by  some  naturalists  as  specifically  distinct.  Even 
within  Hindostan  these  animals,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth, 
form  very  distinct  races  in  the  different  districts ; in  the  N. 
Western  provinces,  as  I am  informed  by  the  Eev.  E.  Everest, 
the  boar  never  exceeds  36  inches  in  height,  whilst  in  Bengal 
one  has  l^een  measured  44  inches  in  height.  In  Europe, 
Korthern  Africa,  and  Hindostan,  domestic  pigs  have  been 
known  tc  cross  with  the  wild  native  species;^  and  in 


* Nathusius,  ‘Die  Racen  des 
Schweiues,’  Berlin,  1860.  An  excel- 
lent appendix  is  given  with  references- 
to  published  and  trustworthy  draw- 
ings of  the  breeds  of  each  country. 

® For  Europe,  see  Bechstein,  ‘Na- 
turgesch.  Deutschlands,’  1801,  B.  i.,  s. 
505.  Several  accounts  have  been 


published  on  the  fertility  of  the  off- 
spring from  wild  and  tame  swine. 
see  Burdach’s  ‘ Physiology,’  and  Godron 
‘ De  I’Espece,’  tom.  i.  p.  370.  For 
Africa,  ‘ Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d’Acclimat.,’ 
tom.  iv.  p.  389.  For  India,  see  Nathu- 
sius, ‘ Schweineschadel,’  s.  148. 


70 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


Cjiai-.  Ml 


Hindostan  an  accurate  observer,^  Sir  Walter  Elliot,  after 
describing  the  differences  between  wild  Indian  and  wild 
tlerman  boars,  remarks  that  “the  same  differences  are  per- 
ceptible in  the  domesticated  individuals  of  the  two  countries,” 
We  may  tlierefore  conclude  that  the  breeds  of  the  Sus  scrofa 
type  are  descended  from,  or  have  been  modified  by  crossing 
with,  forms  which  may  be  ranked  as  geographical  races,  but 
which,  according  to  some  naturalists,  ought  to  be  ranked  as 
distinct  species. 

Pigs  of  the  S/^s  indirus  type  are  best  known  to  Englishmen 
under  the  form  of  the  Chinese  breed.  The  skull  of  S.  indicus, 
as  described  by  Nathusius,  differs  from  that  of  S.  scrofa  in 
several  minor  respects,  as  in  its  greater  breadth  and  in  some 
details  in  the  teeth ; but  chiefly  in  the  shortness  of  the  lachry- 
mal bones,  in  the  greater  width  of  the  fore  part  of  the  palate- 
bones,  and  in  the  divergence  of  the  j)i’emolar  teeth.  It 
deserves  especial  notice  that  these  latter  characters  are  not 
gained,  even  in  the  least  degree,  b}^  the  domesticated  forms 
of  S.  scrofa.  After  reading  the  remarks  and  descriptions 
given  by  Xathusius,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  merely  playing 
Avith  words  to  doubt  whether  S.  indicus  ought  to  be  ranked 
as  a species ; for  the  above-specified  differences  are  more 
strongly  marked  than  any  that  can  be  pointed  out  between, 
for  instance,  the  fox  and  the  Avolf,  or  the  ass  and  the  horse. 
As  already  stated,  S.  indicus  is  not  known  in  a wild  state ; 
but  its  domesticated  forms,  according  to  Kathusius,  come 
near  to  S.  vittatus  of  Java  and  some  allied  species.  A pig- 
found  wild  in  the  Am  islands  (ScliAveineschadel,  s.  169)  is 
apparently  identical  with  S.  indicus:  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  is  a truly  native  animal.  The  douiesticated 
breeds  of  China,  Cochin-China,  and  Siam  belong  to  this  type. 
The  Roman  or  Neapolitan  breed,  the  Andalusian,  the  Hun 
garian,  and  the  “Krause”  SAvine  of  hathusius,  inhabiting 
south-eastern  Europe  and  Turkey,  and  having  fine  curly  hair, 
and  the  small  SavIss  “ BiindtiierschAAmin  ” of  Riitimeyer,  all 
agree  in  their  more  important  skull-characters  Avith  S.  indieux. 
and,  as  is  supposed,  have  all  been  largely  crossed  Aviih  this 

* Sir  W.  Eliiot,  Catalogue  of  Mammalia.  ‘ Madras  Jourual  of  Lit.  and  Scumec,’ 
vol.  .s.  p.  219. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIE  VARIATION. 


7] 


form.  Pigs  of  this  type  have  existed  during  a long  period 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  for  a figure  (Schweine- 
schadel,  s.  142)  closely  resembling  the  existing  Keaj)olitan  pig 
was  found  in  the  buried  city  of  Herculaneum. 

Eiitimeyer  has  made  the  remarkable  discovery  that  there 
lived  contemporaneously  in  Switzerland,  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period,  two  domesticated  forms,  the  S.  s£rofa,  an^tho 
S.  scrofa  palustris  or  Porfschwein.  Eiitimeyer  perceived  that 
the  latter  approached  the  Eastern  breeds,  and,  according  to 
Nathusius,  it  certainly  belongs  to  the  S.  indiciis  group;  bat 
Eiitimeyer  has  subsequently  shown  that  it  differs  in  some 
well-marked  characters.  I'his  author  was  formerly  convinced 
that  his  Torfschwein  existed  as  a wild  animal  during  the 
first  part  of  the  Stone  period,  and  was  domesticated  during 
a later  part  of  the  same  period.^  Nathusius,  whilst  he  fully 
admits  the  curious  fact  first  observed  by  Eiitimeyer,  that  the 
bones  of  domesticated  and  wild  animals  can  be  distinguished 
by  their  different  aspect,  yet,  from  special  difficulties  in  the 
case  of  the  bones  of  the  pig  (Schweineschiidel,  s.  147),  is  not 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  above  conclusion  ; and  Eiitimeyer 
himself  seems  now  to  feel  some  doubt.  Other  naturalists 
have  also  argued  strongly  on  the  same  side  as  Nathusius.^ 

Several  breeds,  differing  in  the  proportions  of  the  body,  in 
the  length  of  the  ears,  in  the  nature  of  the  hair,  in  colour,  ikc., 
come  under  the  S indicus  type.  Nor  is  this  surprising,  con- 
sidering how  ancient  the  domestication  of  this  form  has  been 
both  in  Europe  and  in  China.  In  this  latter  country  the 
date  is  believed  by  an  eminent  Chinese  scholar  to  go  back 
at  least  4fi 00  years  from  the  present  time.  This  same  scholar 
alludes  to  the  existence  of  many  local  varieties  of  the  pig  in 
China ; and  at  the  present  time  the  Chinese  take  extraordi- 
nary pains  in  feeding  and  tending  their  pigs,  not  even 
allowing  them  to  walk  from  place  to  place. * Hence  these 
j'igs,  as  Nathusius  has  remarked,^  display  in  an  eminent  degree 

* ‘ Ffahlhauten,’ s.  163,  et  passim.-  ^ Stan.  Julien,  quoted  by  de  Blain- 

® W.Schiitz’ interesting  essay,  • ville,  ‘ Osteograjihie,’ p.  163, 

Zur  Kenntniss  des  Torfschweins,’  ® Richardson,  • Rigs,  their  Origin,' 

1868.  This  author  believes  that  the  &c.,  p.  26. 

Torfschwein  is  descended  from  a ® ‘ Die  Racen  des  Schweines,’  s.  47, 

distinct  species,  the  S.  senncmensis  of  64 
Central  Africa. 


72 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


Chap,  III 


the  characters  of  a highly  - cultivated  race,  and  hence,  no 
doubt,  their  high  value  in  the  improvement  of  our  European 
breeds.  Nathusius  makes  a remarkable  statement  (Schweine- 
schadel,  s.  138),  that  the  infusion  of  the  ^Vnd,  or  even  of  the 
, , ^^th,  part  of  the  blood  of  S.  indicus  into  a breed  of  S.  scrofa, 
is  sufficient  plainly  to  modify  the  skull  of  the  latter  species. 
This  singular  fact  may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  several 
of  the  chief  distinctive  characters  of  8.  indicus,  such  as  the 
shortness  of  the  lachrymal  bones,  &c.,  being  common  to 
several  species  of  the  genus ; for  in  crosses  characters  which 
are  common  to  many  species  apparently  tend  to  be  prepotent 
over  those  appertaining  to  only  a few  species. 

The  Japan  pig  {8.  pliciceps  of  Gray),  which  was  formerly 
exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  has  an  extraordinary 
appearance  from  its  short  head,  broad  forehead  and  nose, 
great  fleshy  ears,  and  deeply  furrowed  skin.  The  following 
woodcut  is  copied  from  that  given  by  Mr.  Bartlett.^®  Kot 
only  is  the  face  furrowed,  but  thick  folds  of  skin,  which  are 
harder  than  the  other  parts,  almost  like  the  plates  on  the 
Indian  rhinoceros,  hang  about  the  shoulders  and  rump.  It 
is  coloured  black,  with  white  feet,  and  breeds  true.  That  it 
has  long  been  domesticated  there  can  be  little  doubt ; and 
this  might  have  been  inferred  even  from  the  fact  that  its 
young  are  not  longitudinally  striped ; for  this  is  a character 
common  to  all  the  species  included  within  the  genus  8us  and 
tlie  allied  genera  whilst  in  their  natural  state. Dr.  Gray 
has  described  the  skull  of  this  animal,  which  he  ranks  not 
only  as  a distinct  species,  but  places  it  in  a distinct  section 
of  the  genus.  Nathusius,  however,  after  his  careful  study  of 
the  whole  group,  states  positively  ( Schweineschadel,  s.  153- 
*158)  that  the  skull  in  all  essential  characters  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  short-eared  Chinese  breed  of  the  8.  indicus  type. 
Hence  Nathusius  considers  the  Japan  pig  as  only  a domesti- 
cated variety  of  8.  indicus : if  this  realh^'  be  the  case,  it  is  a 


‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1861,  p.  263. 
“ Sclater,  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’ 
Keb.  26th,  1861. 

‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1862,  p.  13. 
The  skull  has  since  been  desci'ibed 
much  more  fully  by  Professor  Lucae 


in  a very  interesting  essay,  ‘ Der 
Schadel  des  Maskenschweine.s.’  1870. 
He  confirms  the  conclusion  of  veil 
Nathusius  on  the  relationship  of  this 
kind  of  pig. 


THETK  VAEIATION. 


Chap.  III. 


73 


wonderful  instance  of  tlie  amount  of  modification  wMcli  can 
be  eftected  under  domestication. 

Formerly  there  existed  in  the  central  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  a singular  breed  of  pigs.  These  are  described  by  the 
Rev.  D.  Tyerman  and  Gr.  Bennett  as  of  small  size,  hump- 
backed, with  a disproportionately  long  head,  with  short  ears 


Fig.  2.— Head  of  Japan  or  Masked  Pig.  (Copied  from  Mr.  Bartlett's  paper  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog. 
Soc.’  1861,  p.  263.) 

turned  backwards,  with  a bushy  tail  not  more  than  two  inches 
in  length,  placed  as  if  it  grew  from  the  back.  \\  ithin  half  a 
century  after  the  introduction  of  European,  and  Chinese  pigs 
into  these  islands,  the  native  breed,  according  to  the  above 
authors,  became  almost  completely  lost  by  being  repeatedly 
crossed  with  them.  Secluded  islands,  as  might  have  been 
‘ Journal  of  Voyages  and  Travels  from  1821  to  1829,’  vol.  i.  p.  300. 


74 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


CiiAr.  Ill, 


expected,  seem  favourable  for  tlie  production  or  retention  of 
peculiar  breeds ; thus,  in  the  Orkney  Islands,  the  hogs  have 
been  described  as  very  small,  with  erect  and  sharp  ears,  and 
“ with  an  appearance  altogether  different  from  tlie  hogs 
brought  from  the  south.” 

Seeing  how  different  the  Chinese  pigs,  ibelonging  to  tJie 
Sas  indicus  type,  are  in  their  osteological  characters  and  in 
external  appearance  from  the  pigs  of  the  S.  scrofa  type,  so 
that  they  must  be  considered  specifically  distinct,  it  is  a fact 
well  deserving  attention,  that  Chinese  and  common  pigs 
have  been  repeatedly  crossed  in  various  manners,  with  un- 
impaired fertility.  One  great  breeder  who  had  used  pure 
Chinese  pigs  assured  me  that  the  fertility  of  the  half-breeds 
inter  se  and  of  their  recrossed  progeny  was  actually  increased  ; 
and  this  is  the  general  belief  of  agriculturists.  Again,  the 
Japan  pig  or  S.  ])Uciceps  of  Gray  is  so  distinct  in  appearance 
from  all  common  pigs,  that  it  stretches  one’s  belief  to  the 
utmost  to  admit  that  it  is  simply  a domestic  variet}’’ ; yet 
this  breed  has  been  found  perfectly  fertile  with  the  Berkshire 
breed  ; and  Mr.  Eyton  informs  me  that  he  paired  a half-bred 
brother  and  sister  and  found  them  quite  fertile  together. 

The  modification  of  the  skull  in  the  most  highly  cultivated 
races  is  wonderful.  To  appreciate  the  amount  of  change, 
Nathusius’  work,  with  its  excellent  figures,  should  be  studied. 
The  whole  of  the  exterior  in  all  its  parts  has  been  altered  : 
the  hinder  surface,  instead  of  sloping  backwards,  is  directed 
forwards,  entailing  many  changes  in  other  parts ; the  front 
of  the  head  is  deeply  concave : the  orbits  have  a different 
shape;  the  auditory  meatus  has  a different  direction  and 
shape  ; the  incisors  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  do  not  touch 
each  other,  and  they  stand  in  both  jaws  beyond  the  plane  of 
the  molars  . the  canines  of  the  upper  jaw  stand  in  front  of 
those  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  this  is  a remarkable  anomaly : 
the  articular  surfaces  of  the  occij)ital  condyles  are  so  greatly 
changed  in  shape,  that,  as  Nathusius  remarks  (s.  133),  no 
naturalist,  seeing  this  important  part  of  the  skull  by  itself, 
would  suppose  that  it  belonged  to  the  genus  Sus.  I'hese 

14  Kev.  G.  Low,  ‘Fauna  Oreadensis,’  p.  10.  See  also  Dr.  Hibbert’s  account 
of  the  pig  of  the  Shetland  islands. 


CuAP.  HI. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


75 


and  various  other  modifications,  as  Nathusius  observes,  can 
hardly  be  considered  as  monstrosities,  for  they  are  not  in- 
jurious, and  are  strictly  inherited.  The  whole  head  is  much 
shortened  ; thus,  whilst  in  common  breeds  its  length  to  that 
of  the  body  is  as  1 to  6, 
in  the  “ cultur-racen  ” 
the  proportion  is  as  1 
to  9,  and  even  recently 
as  1 to  11.^^  The  fol- 
lowing woodcut^®  of  the 
head  of  a wild  boar  and 
of  a sow  from  a photo- 
graph of  the  Yorkshire 
Large  Breed,  may  aid 
in  showing  how  greatly 
the  head  in  a highly 
cultivated  race  has  been 
modified  and  shortened. 

Nathusius  has  well 
discussed  the  causes  of 
the  remarkable  changes 
in  the  skull  and  shape 
of  the  body  which  the 
highly  cultivated  races 
have  undergone.  These 
modifications  occur 
chiefly  in  the  pure  and 
crossed  races  of  the  S. 
indicus  type  ; but  their 
commencement  may 
be  clearly  detected  in 
the  slightly  improved 

bleeds  of  the  S.  SCTofa  Fipr.  3 — Head  of  Wild  Roar,  and  of  “Oold'^n  Days,”  a 

tvne  Yathnsinsj  P’"  York-hire  Latge  Breed;  the  latter-  fi-.iin  a 

ovjije.  -L>clLiiUbl US  spares  photograph.  (Copied  from  Sidney’s  edit,  of  ‘ The 

positively  (s.  99,103),  Pig,’ by  Youaa.) 

as  the  result  of  common  experience  and  of  his  experiments, 


‘ Die  Racen  des  Schweines,’ s.  70.  excellent  edition  of  ‘The  Pig,’  by 
lhe.se  woodcuts  are  copied  from  Youatt,  1860.  See  pp.  1,  16,  19. 
engravings  given  in  Mr.  S.  Sidney’s  ‘ Schweineschadel,’ s.  74,  135. 


76 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


CllAP.  Ill 


that  rich  and  abundant  food,  given  during  youth,  tends  by 
some  direct  action  to  make  the  head  broader  and  shorter ; 
and  that  poor  food  works  a contrary  result.  He  lays  much 
stress  on  the  fact  that  all  wild  and  semi-domesticated  ].hgs, 
in  ploughing  up  the  ground  with  their  muzzles,  have, 
whilst  young,  to  exert  the  powerful  muscles  fixed  to  the 
hinder  part  of  the  head.  In  highly  cultivated  races  this 
habit  is  no  longer  followed,  and  consequently  the  back  c>f 
the  skull  becomes  modified  in  shape,  entailing  other  changes 
in  other  parts.  There  can  hardly  be  a doubt  that  so  great 
a change  in  habits  would  affect  the  skull ; but  it  seems 
rather  doubtful  how  far  this  will  account  for  the  greatly 
reduced  length  of  the  skull  and  for  its  concave  front.  It  is 
well  known  (Nathusius  himself  advancing  many  cases, 
s.  104)  that  there  is  a strong  tendency  in  many  domestic 
animals  — in  bull-  and  pug-dogs,  in  the  niata  cattle,  in 
sheep,  in  Polish  fowls,  short-faced  tumbler  pigeons,  and  in 
one  variety  of  the  carp — for  the  bones  of  the  face  to  become 
greatly  shortened.  In  the  case  of  the  dog,  as  H.  Muller  has 
shown,  this  seems  caused  by  an  abnormal  state  of  the  pri- 
mordial cartilage.  We  may,  however,  readily  admit  that 
abundant  and  rich  food  supplied  during  many  generations 
would  give  an  inherited  tendency  to  increased  size  of  body, 
and  that,  from  disuse,  the  limbs  would  become  finer  and 
shorter.^^  We  shall  in  a future  chapter  see  also  tliat  the 
skull  and  limbs  are  apparently  in  some  manner  correlated, 
so  that  any  change  in  the  one  tends  to  affect  the  other. 

Nathusius  has  remarked,  and  the  observation  is  an  in- 
teresting one,  that  the  peculiar  form  of  the  skull  and  body 
in  the  most  highly  cultivated  races  is  not  characteristic  of 
any  one  race,  but  is  common  to  all  -when  improved  up  to  the 
same  standard.  Thus  the  large-bodied,  long-eared,  English 
breeds  with  a convex  back,  and  the  small-bodied,  short-eared,- 
Chinese  breeds  with  a concave  back,  when  bred  to  the  same 
state  of  perfection,  nearly  resemble  each  other  in  the  form 
of  the  head  and  body.  This  result,  it  appears,  is  partly  due 
to  similar  causes  of  change  acting  on  the  several  races,  and 


**  Nathusius,  ‘ Die  Racen  des  Schvveines,’  s.  71. 


OllAP.  HI. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


77 


partly  to  man  Lreeding  tlie  pig  for  one  sole  purpose,  namely, 
for  the  greatest  amount  of  flesh  and  fat ; so  that  selection  has 
always  tended  towards  one  and  the  same  end.  With  most 
domestic  animals  the  result  of  selection  has  been  divergence 
of  cha]‘acter,  here  it  has  been  convergence.^^ 

The  nature  of  the  food  supplied  during  many  generations 
Las  apparently  affected  the  length  of  the  intestines-;  for, 
according  to  Cuvier, their  length  to  that  of  the  body  in 
the  wild  boar  is  as  9 to  1, — in  the  common  domestic  boar  as 
13-5  to  1, — and  in  the  Siam  breed  as  16  to  1.  In  this  latter 
breed  the  greater  length  may  be  due  either  to  descent  from  a 
distinct  species  or  to  more  ancient  domestication.  The  number 
of  mammae  vary,  as  does  the  period  of  gestation.  The  latest 
authority  says  that  “the  period  averages  from  17  to  20 
weeks,”  but  1 think  there  must  be  some  error  in  this  state- 
ment : in  M.  Tessier’s  observations  on  25  sows  it  varied  from 
109  to  123  days.  The  Eev.  W.  D.  Fox  has  given  me  ten 
carefully  recorded  cases  with  well-bied  pigs,  in  which  the 
period  varied  from  101  to  116  days.  According  to  Nathusius 
the  period  is  shortest  in  the  races  which  come  early  to  ma- 
turity ; but  the  course  of  their  development  does  not  appear 
to  be  actually  shortened,  for  the  young  animal  is  born, 
judging  from  the  state  of  the  skull,  less  fully  developed,  or 
in  a more  embryonic  condition, than  in  the  case  of  common 
swine.  In  the  highly  cultivated  and  early  matured  races 
the  teeth,  also,  are  developed  earlier. 

The  difference  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  and  ribs  in 
different  kinds  of  pigs,  as  observed  by  Mr.  Eyton,^^  and  as 
given  in  the  following  table,  has  often  been  quoted.  The 
African  sow  probably  belongs  to  the  S.  scrofa  type ; and  Mr. 


‘Die  Raceii  des.  Schweines,’ s.  47. 
‘ Schweineschadel,’ s.  104.  Compare, 
also,  the  figures  of  the  old  Irish  and 
the  improved  Irish  breeds  in  Richard- 
son on  ‘ The  Pig,’  1847. 

Quoted  by  Isid.  Geoffroy,  ‘Hist. 
Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p 441. 

S.  Sidney,  ‘The  Pig,’  p.  61. 

‘ Schweineschadel,’  s.  2,  20. 
‘Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1837,  p.  23. 
1 have  not  given  the  caudal  vertebrse, 
as  Mr.  Evton  savs  some  might  possibly 


have  been  lost.  I have  added  together 
the  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  owing 
to  Prof.  Owen’s  remarks  (‘Journal 
Linn.  Soc.  vol.  ii.  p.  25)  on  the  difi'er- 
ence  between  dorsal  and  lumbar 
vertebrae  depending  only  on  the 
development  of  the  ribs.  Nevertheless 
the  difference  in  the  number  of  the 
ribs  in  pigs  deserves  notice.  M. 
Sanson  gives  the  number  of  lumbar 
vertebrae  in  various  pigs ; ‘ Comjjtes 
Rendus,’  Lxiii.  p.  843. 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


Chap.  Ill 


■ 78 

Eyton  informs  me  that,  since  the  publication  of  this  paper, 
cross-bred  animals  from  the  African  and  English  races  were 
found  by  Lord  Hill  to  be  perfectly  fertile. 


English 

Long-legged 

Male. 

Afiican 

Female. 

Chinese 

Male. 

Wild  Boar 
from  Cuvier. 

Kn  nch 
D..ine.-.tic 
Boar.  Iron) 
Cuvier. 

Dorsal  vertebrae  .. 

15 

13 

15  j 

14 

14 

luiinbar 

t; 

6 

4 

5 i 

5 

Dorsal  arid  lumbar  1 
together  .. 

a, 

11) 

lit 

11) 

S.icral 

5 

.5 

4 

4 

4 

Total  number  ofl 
vertebrae  . . / 

2i: 

24 

23 

23  1 

23 

Some  semi-monstrous  breeds  deserve  notice.  From  the 
time  of  Aristotle  to  the  present  time  solid-hoofed  swine  have 
occasionally  been  observed  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
Although  this  peculiarity  is  strongly  inherited,  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  all  the  animals  with  solid  hoofs  have  descended 
from  the  same  parents ; it  is  more  probable  that  the  same 
peculiarity  has  reappeared  at  various  times  and  places.  Dr. 
Struthers  has  lately  described  and  figured  the  structure 
of  the  feet ; in  both  front  and  hind  feet  the  distal  phalanges 
of  the  two  greater  toes  are  represented  by  a single,  great, 
hoof-bearing  phalanx ; and  in  the  front  feet,  the  middle 
phalanges  are  represented  by  a bone  which  is  single  towards 
the  lower  end,  but  bears  two  separate  articulations  towards 
the  upper  end.  From  other  accounts  it  appears  that  an 
intermediate  toe  is  likewise  sometimes  superadded. 

Another  curious  anomaly  is  offered  by  the  appendages, 
described  by  M.  Eudes-Deslongchamps  as  often  characterizing 
the  Normandy  pigs.  These  appendages  are  always  attached 
to  the  same  spot,  to  the  corners  of  the  jaw ; they  are  cylin- 

‘Edinburgh  New  Philosoph.  Blainville’s  ‘ Osteographie,’ p.  128,  for 
Journal,’  April,  1863.  See  also  De  various  authorities  on  this  subject. 


Chap.  Ill 


THSIK  VAEIATION. 


79 


drical,  about  three  inches  in  length,  covered  with  bristles, 
and  with  a pencil  of  bristles  rising  out  of  a sinus  on  one 
side : they  have  a cartilaginous  centre,  with  two  small  longi- 
tudinal muscles : they  occur  either  symmetrically  on  both 
sides  of  the  face  or  on  one  side  alone.  Richardson  figures 
them  on  the  gaunt  old  “ Irish  Greyhound  pig ; ” and  ^s^athu- 
sius  states  that  they  occasionally  appear  in  all  the  lon^eared 


Fig.  4.— Oid  Irish  Pig,  with  jaw-appendages.  (Copied  from  H.  D.  Uichardson  on  Pigs.) 

races,  but  are  not  strictly  inherited,  for  they  occur  or  fail  in 
animals  of  the  same  litter.^^  As  no  wild  pigs  are  known  tc 
have  analogous  appendages,  we  have  at  present  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  their  appearance  is  due  to  reversion;  and  if 
this  be  so,  we  are  forced  to  admit  that  a somewhat  com- 
plex, though  apparently  useless,  structure  may  be  suddenly 
developed  without  the  aid  of  selection. 

It  is  a remarkable  fact  that  the  boars  of  all  domesticated 
breeds  have  much  shorter  tusks  than  wild  boars.  Many  facts 
show  that  with  many  animals  the  state  of  the  hair  is  much 
affected  by  exposure  to,  or  protection  from,  climate ; and  as 
we  see  that  the  state  of  the  hair  and  teeth  are  correlated  in 
Turkish  dogs  (pother  analogous  facts  will  be  hereafter  given), 
may  we  not  venture  to  surmise  that  the  reduction  of  the  tusks 

25  Eudes  Deslongchamps,  ‘ Me  - ‘ Pigs,  their  Origin,  &c.,’  1847,  p.  30 

moires  de  la  Soc.  Linn,  de  Normandie,'  Nathusius,  ‘ Die  Raceu  des  Schweines,' 
vol.  vii.,  1842,  p.  41.  Richardson,  1863,  s.  54. 


DOMESTIC  PIGS. 


Chap.  Ill 


. 80 


in  the  domestic  boar  is  related  to  liis  coat  of  bristles  being 
diminished  from  living  under  shelter  ? On  the  other  hand, 
as  we  shall  immediately  see,  the  tusks  and  bristles  reappear 
with  feral  boars,  which  are  no  longer  protected  from  the 
.weather.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  tusks  should  be  more 
affected  than  the  other  teeth;  as  parts  developed  to  serve 
as  secondary  sexual  characters  are  always  liable  to  mucii 
variation. 

It  is  a well-known  fact  that  the  young  of  wild  European 
and  Indian  pigs,'^^  for  the  first  six  months,  are  longitudinally 
banded  with  light-coloured  stripes.  This  character  generally 
disappears  under  domestication.  The  Turkish  domestic  pigs, 
however,  have  striped  young,  as  have  those  of  Westphalia, 
“whatever  maybe  their  hue;”^'^  whether  these  latter  pigs 
belong  to  the  same  curly-haired  race  as  the  Turkish  swine, 
I do  not  know.  The  pigs  which  have  run  wild  in  Jamaica 
and  the  semi- feral  pigs  of  Kew  Granada,  both  those  which 
are  black  and  those  which  are  black  with  a white  band  across 
the  stomach,  often  extending  over  the  back,  have  resumed 
this  aboriginal  character  and  produce  longitudinally-striped 
young.  This  is  likewise  the  case,  at  least  occasionally,  with 
the  neglected  pigs  in  the  Zambesi  settlement  on  the  coast  oi 
Africa.^* 


D.  Johnson’s  ‘ Sketches  of  Indian 
Field  Sports,’  p.  272.  Mr.  Crawfurd 
infoi’ms  me  that  the  same  fact  holds 
good  with  the  wild  pigs  of  the  Malay 
peninsula. 

For  Turkish  pigs,  see  Desmarest, 
‘ Mammalogie,’  1820,  p.  391.  For 
those  of  Westphalia,  see  Eichardson’s 
‘ Pigs,  their  Origin,  &C;,’  1847,  p.  41. 

With  respect  to  the  several  fore- 
going and  following  statements  on 
feral  pigs,  see  Koulin,  in  ‘ 5Iem.  pre- 
sentes  par  divers  Savans  a I’Acad.,’ 
&c.,  Paris,  tom.  vi.  1835,  p.  326.  It 
should  be  observed  that  his  account 
does  not  apply  to  truly  feral  pigs; 
but  to  pigs  long  introduced  into  the 
country  and  living  in  a half-wild 
state.  For  the  tiuly  feral  p'g  ^ of 
Jamaica,  see  Gosse’s  ‘ Sojourn  in 
Jamaica,’  1851,  p.  380;  and  Col 


Hamilton  Smith,  in  ‘Nat.  Library, 
vol.  ix.  p.  93.  With  respect  to  Africa 
see  Livingstone’s  ‘ Expedition  to  the 
Zambesi,’  1865,  p.  153.  The  most 
precise  statement  with  respect  to  the 
tusks  of  the  West  Indian  feral  boars  is 
by  P.  Labat  (quoted  by  Roulin)  ; out 
this  author  attributes  the  state  of 
these  pigs  to  descent  from  a domestic 
stock  which  he  saw  in  Spain.  Admiral 
Sulivan,  R.N.,  had  ample  opportunities 
of  observing  the  wild  pigs  on  Eagle 
Islet  in  the  Falklands  ; and  he  informs 
me  that  they  resembled  wild  boars 
with  bristly  ridged  backs  and  large 
tusks.  The  pigs  which  have  run  wild 
in  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres 
(Rengger,  ‘ Saugethiere,’  s.  331)  have 
not  reverted  to  the  wild  type.  De 
Blainville  (‘ Osteographie,’  p.  .132) 
refers  to  two  skulls  of  domestic  pigs 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  CHARACTER  WHEN  FERAL. 


81 


The  common  belief  that  all  domesticated  animals,  when 
they  run  wild,  revert  completely  to  the  character  of  their 
parent-stock,  is  chiefly  founded,  as  far  as  I can  discover,  on 
feral  pigs.  BuUeven  in  this  case  the  belief  is  not  grounded 
on  sufficient  evidence;  for  the  two  main  types,  namely,  S, 
scrofa  and  incUcus,  have  not  been  distinguished.  The  young, 
as  we  have  just  seen,  reacquire  their  longitudinal  stripes,  and 
the  boars  invariably  reassume  their  tusks.  They  revert  also 
in  the  general  shape  of  their  bodies,  and  in  the  length  of 
their  legs  and  muzzles,  to  the  state  of  the  wild  animal,  as 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  amount  of  exercise  which 
they  are  compelled  to  take  in  search  of  food.  In  Jamaica  the 
feral  pigs  do  not  acquire  the  full  size  of  the  European  wild 
boar,  “ never  attaining  a greater  height  than  20  inches  at  the 
shoulder.”  In  various  countries  they  reassume  their  original 
bristly  covering,  but  in  different  degrees,  dependent  on  the 
climate ; thus,  according  to  Eoulin,  the  semi-feral  pigs  in 
the  hot  valleys  of  New  Granada  are  very  scantily  clothed ; 
whereas,  on  the  Paramos,  at  the  height  of  7000  to  8000  feet, 
they  acquire  a thick  covering  of  wool  lying  under  the 
bristles,  like  that  on  the  truly  wild  pigs  of  France.  These 
pigs  on  the  Paramos  are  small  and  stunted.  The  wild  boar 
of  India  is  said  to  have  the  bristles  at  the  end  of  its  tail 
arranged  like  tlie  plumes  of  an  arrow,  whilst  the  European 
boar  has  a simple  tuft ; and  it  is  a curious  fact  that  many, 
but  not  all,  of  the  feral  pigs  in  Jamaica,  derived  from  a 
Spanish  stock,  have  a plumed  tail.^^  With  respect  to  colour,, 
feral  pigs  generally  revert  to  that  of  the  wild  boar ; but  in 
certain  parts  of  S.  America,  as  we  have  seen,  some  of  the 
semi-feral  pigs  have  a curious  white  band  across  their 
stomachs ; and  in  certain  other  hot  places  the  pigs  are  red, 
and  this  colour  has  likewise  occasionally  been  observed  in 


sent  fiom  Patagonia  by  Al.  d’Orbigny, 
tiud  he  states  that  they  have  the 
ocoipital  elevation  of  the  wild  European 
boar,  but  that  the  head  altogether  is 
plus  courte  et  plus  ramassee.”  He 
refers,  also,  to  the  skin  of  a feral  pig 
from  North  America,  and  says,  “il 
ressemble  tout  a fait  a un  petit  sang- 

V 


lier,  mais  il  est  presque  tout  noir,  ct 
peut-etre  un  peu  plus  ramasse  dans 
ses  formes.” 

Gosse’s  ‘ .Jamaica,’  p.  386,  with  a 
quotation  from  Williamson’s  ‘ Oriental 
Field  Sports.’  Also  Col.  Hamilton 
Smith,  in  ‘ Naturalist  Library,’  vol 
ix.  p.  04. 


82 


CATTLE. 


Chav.  Ill 


the  feral  pigs  of  Jamaica.  From  these  several  facts  we  see 
that  with  pigs  when  feral  there  is  a strong  tendency  to 
revert  to  the  wild  type;  but  that  this  tendency  is  largely 
governed  by  the  nature  of  the  climate,  ampunt  of  exercise, 
and  other  causes  of  change  to  which  they  have  been 
Bubjo-Dted. 

The  last  point  worth  notice  is  that  we  have  unusually  good 
evidence  of  breeds  of  pigs  now  keeping  perfectly  true,  which 
have  been  formed  by  the  crossing  of  several  distinct  breeds. 
The  Improved  Essex  pigs,  for  instance,  breed  very  true ; but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  they  largely  owe  their  present  excellent 
qualities  to  crosses  originally  made  by  Lord  Western  with  the 
Neapolitan  race,  and  to  subsequent  crosses  with  the  Berkshire 
breed  (this  also  having  been  improved  by  Neapolitan  crosses), 
, and  likewise,  probably,  with  the  Sussex  breed. In  breeds 
thus  formed  by  complex  crosses,  the  most  careful  and  unre- 
mitting selection  during  many  generations  has  been  found  to  be 
indispensable.  Chiefly  in  consequence  of  so  much  crossing, 
some  well-known  breeds  have  undergone  rapid  changes  ; thus, 
according  to  Nathusius,^^  the  Berkshire  breed  of  1780  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  1810 ; and,  since  this  latter  period,  at 
least  two  distinct  forms  have  borne  the  same  name. 


Cattle. 

Domestic  cattle  are  certainly  the  descendants  of  more  than 
one  wild  form,  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  shown  to  be  the 
case  with  our  dogs  and  pigs.  Naturalists  have  generally 
made  two  main  divisions  of  cattle : the  humped  kinds  inhabit- 
ing tropical  countries,  called  in  India  Zebus,  to  which  the 
specific  name  of  Bos  indicus  has  been  given  ; and  the  common 
non -humped  cattle,  generally  included  under  the  name  ol 
Bos  taurus.  The  humped  cattle  were  domesticated,  as  may 
be  seen  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  at  least  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  dynasty,  that  is  2100  b.c.  They  differ  from  common 
cattle  in  various  osteological  characters,  even  in  a greater 

• S.  Sidney’s  edition  of  ‘ Youatt  on  ‘ Schweinesrhadel,’ s 140. 

file  Pig,’  1860,  pp.  7,  26,  27,  29,  30. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


88 


degree,  according  to  Eutimeyer,-'^^  than  do  the  fossil  and 
prehistoric  European  species,  namely.  Bos  'primigenius  and 
longifrons,  from  each  other.  They  differ,  also,  as  Mr.  Blyth,^^ 
who  has  particularly  attended  to  this  subject,  remarks,  in 
general  configuration,  in  the  shape  of  their  ears,  in  the  point 
where  the  dewlap  commences,  in  the  typical  curvature  of 
their  horns,  in  their  manner  of  carrying  their  heads  when  "at 
reot,  in  their  ordinary  variations  of  colour,  especially  in  the 
frequent  presence  of  “ nilgau-like  markings  on  their  feet,” 
and  “ in  the  one  being  born  with  teeth  protruding  through 
the  jaws,  and  the  other  not  so.”  They  have  different  habits, 
and  their  voice  is  entirely  different.  The  humped  cattle  in 
India  “ seldom  seek  shade,  and  never  go  into  the  wmter  and 
there  stand  knee-deep,  like  the  cattle  of  Europe.”  They  have 
run  wild  in  parts  of  Oude  and  Eohilcund,  and  can  maintain 
themselves  in  a region  infested  by  tigers.  They  have  given 
rise  to  many  races  differing  greatly  in  size,  in  the  presence 
of  one  or  two  humps,  in  length  of  horns,  and  other  respects. 
Mr.  Blyth  sums  up  emphatically  that  the  humped  and  hump- 
less  cattle  must  be  considered  as  distinct  species.  When  we 
consider  the  number  of  points  in  external  structure  and 
habits,  independently  of  important  osteological  differences,  in 
which  they  differ  from  each  other ; and  that  many  of  these 
points  are  not  likely  to  have  been  affected  by  domestication, 
there  can  hardly  be  a doubt,  notwithstanding  the  adverse 
opinion  of  some  naturalists,  that  the  humped  and  non-humped 
cattle  must  be  ranked  as  specifically  distinct. 

The  European  breeds  of  humpless  cattle  are  numerous. 
Professor  Low  enumerates  19  British  breeds,  only  a few  of 
which  are  identical  with  those  on  the  Continent.  Even  the 
email  Channel  islands  of  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  Alderney 


‘Die  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,’ 
1861,  s.  109,  149,  222.  See  also 
Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  ‘ Mem.  du 
Mus.  d’Hist.  Nat.,’  tom.  x.  p.  172  ; 
and  his  son  Isidore,  in  ‘ Hist.  Nat. 
Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  69.  Vasey,  in  his 
‘Deaneations  of  the  Ox  Tribe,’  1851, 
p.  127,  says  the  zebu  has  four,  and 
common  ox  five,  sacral  vertebrje. 
Mr.  Hodgson  found  the  ribs  either 


thirteen  or  fourteen  in  number  ; see  a 
note  in  ‘Indian  Field,’  1858,  p.  62. 

‘ The  Indian  Field,’  1858,  p.  74, 
where  Mr.  Blyth  gives  his  authorities 
with  respect  to  the  feral  humped 
cattle.  Pickering,  also,  in  his  ‘ Races 
of  Man,’  1850,  p.  274,  notices  the 
peculiar  grunt-like  character  of  the 
voice  of  the  humped  cattle. 


84 


CAT'l’LE. 


ClIAl*.  Ill 


possess  tlieir  own  sub-breeds ; and  these  again  differ  from 
the  cattle  of  the  other  British  islands,  such  as  Anglesea,  and 
the  western  isles  of  Scotland.  Desmarest,  who  jDaid  attention 
to  tlio  subject,  describes  15  French  races,  excluding  sub- 
varieties  and  those  imported  from  other  countries.  In  other 
parts  of  Europe  there  are  several  distinct  races,  such  as  the 
pale-coloured  Hungarian  cattle,  with  their  light  and  free 
step,  and  enormous  horns  sometimes  measuring  above  five 
feet  from  tip  to  tip  : the  Podolian  cattle  also  are  remarkable 
from  the  height  of  their  fore-quarters.  In  the  most  recent 
work  on  Cattle,^*"  engravings  are  given  of  fifty-five  European 
breeds ; it  is,  however,  probable  that  several  of  these  differ 
very  little  from  each  other,  or  are  merely  synonyms.  It  must 
not  be  supposed  that  numerous  breeds  of  cattle  exist  only  in 
jong-civilized  countries,  for  we  shall  presently  see  that  several 
kinds  are  kept  by  the  savages  of  Southern  Africa. 

With  respect  to  the  parentage  of  the  several  European  breeds, 
we  already  know  much  from  Nilsson’s  Memoir/^  and  more  especially 
from  Eiitimeyer’s  works  and  those  of  Boyd  Dawkins.  Two  or  tlu’ee 
species  or  forms  of  Bos,  closely  allied  to  still  living  domestic  races, 
have  been  found  in  the  more  recent  tertiary  deposits  or  amongst 
prehistoric  remains  in  Europe.  Following  Eutimeyer,  we  have : — 

Bos  priinigenius.  — This  magnificent,  well  known  species  was 
domesticated  in  Switzerland  during  the  Neolithic  period ; even  at 
this  early  period  it  varied  a little,  having  apparently  been  crossed 
with  other  races.  Some  of  the  larger  races  on  the  Continent,  as  the 
Friesland,  &c.,  and  the  Pembroke  race  in  England,  closely  resemble 
in  essential  structure  B.  primigenius,  and  no  doubt  are  its  descen- 
dants. This  is  likewise  the  opinion  of  Nilsson.  Bos  primigenius 
existed  as  a wild  animal  in  Caesar’s  time,  and  is  now  semi-wild, 
though  much  degenerated  in  size,  in  the  park  of  Chillingham ; for 
I am  informed  by  Professor  Eutimeyer,  to  whom  Lord  Tanker ville 
sent  a skull,  that  the  Chillingham  cattle  are  less  altered  from  the 
true  primigenius  type  than  any  other  known  breed.®^ 


Mr.  H.  E.  Marquand,  in  ‘The 
Times,’  June  2ord,  1856. 

^asey,  ‘ Delineations  of  the  Ox- 
Tribe,  p.  124.  Brace’s  ‘ Hungary,’ 
1851,  p.  94.  The  Hungarian  cattle 
descend,  according  to  Rutimeyer 
(‘Zahmen  Europ.  Rindes,’  1866,  s,  13 
from  Bos  primigenius. 

Moll  and  Gayot,  ‘ La  Connais- 


sance  Geh.  du  Boeuf,’  Paris,  1860, 
Fig.  82  is  that  of  the  Podolian  bree‘1. 

A translation  appeared  in  thiee 
parts  in  the  ‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Hist.,’  2nd  series,  vol.  iv.,  1849. 

&'(?,  also,  Riitimeyer’s  ‘ Beitrii^e 
pal.  Gesch.  der  Wiederkaner  Bas-i, 
1865,  s.  54. 


Chai’.  III. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


85 


Bos  trochoceros. — This  form  is  not  included  in  the  three  species 
above  mentioned,  for  it  is  now  considered  by  Euiimeyer  to  be  the 
female  of  an  early  domesticated  form  of  B.  primigenius,  and  as  the 
progenitor  of  hi&frontosus  race.  I may  add  that  specific  names  have 
been  given  to  four  other  fossil  oxen,  now  believed  to  be  identical 
with  B.  primigenius?^ 

Bos  longifrons  (or  brachyceros)  of  Owen. — This  very  distinct  species 
was  of  small  size,  and  had  a short  body  with  fine  legs.  According 
to  Eoyd  Dawkins^®  it  was  introduced  as  a domesticated  animaLinto 
Britain  at  a very  early  period,  and  supplied  food  to  the  Roman 
legionaries.^^  Some  remains  have  been  found  in  Ireland  in  certain 
crannoges,  of  which  the  dates  are  believed  to  be  from  843-933 
It  was  also  the  commonest  form  in  a domesticated  condition  in 
Switzerland  during  the  earliest  part  of  the  Neolithic  period.  Pro- 
fessor Owen^-'^  thinks  it  probable  that  the  Welsh  and  Highland  cattle 
are  descended  from  this  form ; as  likewise  is  the  case,  according  to 
Riitimeyer,  with  some  of  the  existing  Swiss  breeds.  These  latter 
are  of  different  shades  of  colour  from  light-grey  to  blackish-brown, 
with  a lighter  stripe  along  the  spine,  but  they  have  no  pure  white 
marks.  The  cattle  of  North  Wales  and  the  Highlands,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  generally  black  or  dark-coloured. 

Bos  frontosus  of  Nilsson. — This  species  is  allied  to  B.  longifrons, 
and,  according  to  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Boyd  Dawkins,  is  identical 
with  it,  but  in  the  opinion  of  some  judges  is  distinct.  Both  co  existed 
in  Scania  during  the  same  late  geological  period,^*  and  both  have 
been  found  in  the  Irish  crannoges.^^  Nilsson  believes  that  his 
B.  frontosus  may  be  the  parent  of  the  mountain  cattle  of  Norway, 
which  have  a high  protuberance  on  the  skull  between  the  base  of 
the  horns.  As  Professor  Owen  and  others  believe  that  the  Scotch 
Highland  cattle  are  descended  from  his  B.  longifrons,  it  is  worth 
notice  that  a capable  judge  has  remarked  that  he  saw  no  cattle 
in  Norway  like  the  Highland  breed,  but  that  they  more  nearly 
resembled  the  Devonshire  breed. 


On  the  whole  we  may  conclude,  more  especially  from  the 
researches  of  Boyd  Dawkins,  that  European  cattle  are 


Pictet’s  ‘ Palebntologie,’  tom  i.  p. 
365  (2nd  edit.).  With  respect  to  B. 
trochoceros,  see  Riitimeyer’s  ‘ Zahmen 
Europ.  Rindes,’  1866,  s.  26. 

W.  Boyd  Dawkins  on  the  British 
Fossil  Oxen,’  ‘Journal  of  the  Geolog. 
Soc.,’  Aug.  1867,  p.  182.  Also  ‘ Proc. 
Phil.  Soc.  of  Manchester,’  Nov.  14, 
1871,  and  ‘Cave  Hunting,’  1875,  p. 
27,  138. 

‘ British  Pleistocene  Mammalia,’ 
by  W.  B.  Dawkins  and  W.  A.  Sandford, 
1*866,  p.  XV. 

R.  Wilde,  ‘An  Essay  on  the 


Animal  Remains,  &c.  Royal  Irish 
Academy,’  1860,  p.  29.  Also  ‘ Proc. 
of  R.  Irish  Academy,’  1858,  p.  48. 

‘ Lecture : Royal  Institution  of  G. 
Britain,’  May  2nd,  1856,  p.  4. 
‘ British  Fossil  Mammals,*  p.  513. 

Nilsson,  in  ‘Annals  and  Mag.  of 
Nat.  Hist.,’  1849,  vol.  iv.  p.  354. 

See  W.  R.  Wilde,  ut  supra ; and 
Mr.  Blythe,  in  ‘ Proc.  Irish  Academy,’ 
March  5th,  1864. 

Laing’s  ‘ Tour  in  Norway,’  p 

no. 


86 


CATTLE. 


Cha.-.  Ill 


dosceiiiled  from  two  species ; and  there  is  no  improbahility 
ill  this  fact,  for  the  genus  Bos  readily  yields  to  domestication. 
Besides  these  two  sjDecies  and  the  zebu,  the  yak,  the  gay  a], 
and  the  arni  (not  to  mention  the  buffalo  or  genus  Bubalus) 
liave  been  domesticated;  making  altogether  six  species  of 
Bos.  The  zebu  and  the  two  EurojDean  species  are  now  extinct 
ill  a wild  state.  Although  certain  races  of  cattle  were 
domesticated  at  a very  ancient  period  in  Europe,  it  does  net 
follow  that  they  were  first  domesticated  here.  Those  who 
place  much  reliance  on  philology  argue  that  they  were  imported 
from  the  East."^*^  It  is  probable  that  they  originally  inhabited 
a temperate  or  cold  climate,  but  not  a land  long  coyered  with 
snow;  for  our  cattle,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on 
Horses,  have  not  the  instinct  of  scraping  away  the  snow  to 
get  at  the  herbage  beneath.  No  one  could  behold  the  magni- 
ficent wild  bulls  on  the  bleak  Falkland  Islands  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  and  doubt  about  the  climate  being  admirably 
suited  to  them.  Azara  has  remarked  that  in  the  temperate 
regions  of  La  Plata  the  cows  conceive  when  two  years  old, 
whilst  in  the  much  hotter  country  of  Paraguay  they  do  not 
conceive  till  three  ^^ears  old ; “ from  which  fact,”  as  he  adds, 
“ one  may  conclude  that  cattle  do  not  succeed  so  well  in  warm 
countries.” 

Bos  primigenus  and  longifrons  have  been  ranked  by  nearly 
all  palaeontologists  as  distinct  species ; and  it  would  not  be 
reasonable  to  take  a different  view  simply  because  their 
domesticated  descendants  now  intercross  with  the  utmost 
freedom.  All  the  European  breeds  have  so  often  been  crossed 
both  intentionally  and  unintentionally,  that,  if  any  steri- 
lity had  ensued  from  such  unions,  it  would  certainly  have 
been  detected.  As  zebus  inhabit  a distant  and  much  hotter 
region,  and  as  they  differ  in  so  many  characters  from  our 
European  cattle,  I have  taken  pains  to  ascertain  whether  the 
two  forms  are  fertile  when  crossed.  The  late  Lord  Powis 
imported  some  zebus  and  crossed  them  with  common  cattle 
in  Shropshire ; and  I was  assured  by  his  steward  that  the 

" Isid.  Geoffroy  Saint-Hi'airc,  ‘ Quadruples du  Paraguay,’ tom 

Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  98.  ii.  p.  360. 

Idem,  tom.  iii.  pp.  82,  91. 


Chap  III. 


CROSSED  SPECIES  FERTILE. 


87 


cross-bred  animals  were  perfectly  fertile  with  both  parent- 
stocks.  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that  in  India  h3^brids,  with 
various  proportions  of  either  blood,  are  quite  fertile  ; and  this 
can  hardly  fail  to  be  known,  for  in  some  districts  the  two 
species  are  allowed  to  breed  freely  together.  Most  of  the 
cattle  which  were  first  introduced  into  Ihsmania  were 
humped,  so  that  at  one  time  thousands  of  crossed  animals 
i)xisted  there;  and  Mr.  B.  O’Neile  Wilson,  M. A.,  writes  to 
me  from  Tasmania  that  he  has  never  heard  of  any  sterility 
having  been  observed.  He  himself  formerly  possessed  a 
herd  of  such  crossed  cattle,  and  all  were  perfectly  fertile ; so 
much  so,  that  he  cannot  remember  even  a single  cow  failing 
to  calve.  These  several  facts  afford  an  important  confirma- 
tion of  the  Pallasian  doctrine  that  the  descendants  of  species 
which  when  first  domesticated  would  if  crossed  have  been 
in  all  probability  in  some  degree  sterile,  become  perfectl}' 
fertile  after  a long  course  of  domestication.  In  a future 
chapter  we  shall  see  that  this  doctrine  throws  some  light  on 
the  difficult  subject  of  Hybridism. 

I have  alluded  to  the  cattle  in  Chillingham  Park,  which, 
according  to  Riitimej^er,  have  been  very  little  changed  from 
fhQ  Bos  pimigenias  This  park  is  so  ancient  that  it  is 

referred  to  in  a record  of  the  j^ear  1220.  I’he  cattle  in  their 
instincts  and  habits  are  truly  wold.  They  are  white,  with 
the  inside  of  the  ears  reddish-brown,  eyes  rimmed  with  black, 
muzzles  brown,  hoofs  black,  and  horns  white  tipped  with 
black.  Within  a period  of  thirty-three  years  about  a dozen 
cak  es  were  born  with  “ brown  and  blue  spots  upon  the 
cheeks  or  necks;  but  these,  together  with  any  defective 
animals,  were  alwa^^s  destroyed.”  According  to  Bewick, 
about  the  year  1770  some  cklves  appeared  with  black  ears; 
but  these  were  also  destroyed  b}^  the  keeper,  and  black  caia 
have  not  since  reappeared.  The  wild  white  cattle  in  the 
Duke  of  Hamilton’s  park,  where  I have  heard  of  the  birth 
of  a bhick  calf,  are  said  b}"  Lord  Tankerville  to  be  inferior  to 
those  at  Chillingham.  The  cattle  kept  until  the  year  1780 
by  the  Duke  of  Queensberry,  but  now  extinct,  had  their  ears, 
muzzle,  and  orbits  of  the  eyes  black.  Tho.se  which  have 
Walther,  ‘ Das  Riiidvieh,’  1817,  s.  30. 


88 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  Ill 


existed  from  time  immeiijorial  at  Cliartley,  closely  resemble 
the  cattle  at  Oliillingham,  but  are  larger,  “ with  some  small 
difference  in  the  colour  of  tlie  ears.”  “ They  frequently  tend 
to  become  entirely  black;  and  a singular  superstition  prevails 
in  the  vicinity  that,  when  a black  calf  is  bom,  some  calamity 
impends  over  the  noble  house  of  Ferrers.  All  the  black 
calves  are  destroyed.”  The  cattle  at  Burton  Constable  in 
Yorkshire,  now  extinct,  had  ears,  muzzle,  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail  black.  Those  at  Gisburne,  also  in  Yorkshire,  are  said  by 
Bewick  to  have  been  sometimes  without  dark  muzzles,  with 
the  inside  alone  of  the  ears  brown;  and  they  are  elsewhere 
said  to  have  been  low  in  stature  and  hornless. 

The  several  above-specified  differences  in  the  park-cattle, 
slight  though  they  be,  are  worth  recording,  as  they  show  that 
animals  living  nearly  in  a state  of  nature,  and  exposed  to 
nearly  uniform  conditions,  if  not  allowed  to  roam  fieely  and 
to  cross  with  other  herds,  do  not  keep  as  uniform  as  truly 
wild  animals.  For  the  preservation  of  a uniform  character, 
even  within  the  same  park,  a certain  degree  of  selection — that 
is,  the  destruction  of  the  dark-coluured  calves — is  apparently 
necessary. 

Boyd  Dawkins  believes  that  the  park-caitle  are  descended 
from  anciently  domesticated,  and  not  truly  wild  animals  ; 
and  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  dark-coloured  calves, 
it  is  improbable  th.at  the  aboriginal  Bos  primigenius  wsis  white. 
It  is  curious  what  a strong,  though  not  invariable,  tendency 
there  is  in  wild  or  escaped  cattle  to  become  white  with 
coloured  ears,  under  widely  different  conditions  of  life.  If 
the  old  writers  Boethius  and  Leslie  can  be  trusted,  the 


**  I am  much  indebted  to  the 
present  Earl  of  Tankerville  for  infor- 
mation about  his  wild  cattle  ; and  for 
the  skull  which  was  sent  to  Prof. 
Kiitimsyer.  The  fullest  account  of 
the  Chillingham  cattle  is  given  by 
Mr.  Hindmarsh,  together  with  a 
letter  by  the  late  Lord  Tankerville, 
in  ‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’ 
vol.  ii.,  1839,  p.  274.  See  Bewick, 
‘Quadrupeds,’  2nd  edit.,  1791,  p.  35, 
note  With  respect  to  those  of  the 


Duke  of  Queensberry,  S"e  Pennant’s 
‘Tour  in  Scotland,’ p.  i09.  For  those 
of  Chartley,  see  Low’s  ‘ Domesticated 
Animals  of  Britain,’  1845,  p.  238. 
For  those  of  Gisburne,  see  Bewick’s 
‘ Quadrupeds,’  and  ‘ Encyclop.  of  Rural 
Sports,’  p.  101. 

Boethius  was  born  in  1470( 
‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol 
ii.,  1839,  p.  281;  and  vol.  iv.  1819 
p.  424. 


Chap.  III. 


PARK-CATTLE. 


89 


wild  cattle  of  Scotland  were  wHte  and  furnislied  with  a great 
mane ; but  the  colour  of  their  ears  is  not  mentioned.  In 
Wales, during  the  tenth  century,  some  of  the  cattle  are 
described  as  being  white  with  red  ears.  Four  hundred  cattle 
thus  coloured  were  sent  to  King  John ; and  an  early  record 
speaks  of  a hundred  cattle  with  red  ears  having  been  de- 
manded as  a compensation  for  some  offence,  but,  if  tlpe  cattle 
were  of  a dark  or  black  colour,  150  were  to  be  presented. 
The  black  cattle  of  North  Wales  apparently  belong,  as  wo 
have  seen,  to  the  small  longifrons  type  : and  as  the  alter- 
native was  offered  of  either  150  dark  cattle,  or  100  white 
cattle  with  red  ears,  we  may  piesume  that  the  latter 
were  the  larger  beasts,  and  probabl}'  belonged  to  the 
'primigenius  t}'pe.  Youatt  has  remarked  that  at  the  present 
day,  whenever  cattle  of  the  short-horn  breed  are  white,  the 
extremities  of  their  ears  are  more  or  less  tinged  with  red. 

The  cattle  which  have  run  wild  on  the  Pampas,  in  Texas, 
and  in  two  parts  of  Africa,  have  become  of  a nearly  uniform 
dark  brownish-red.^^  On  the  Ladrone  Islands,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  immense  herds  of  cattle,  which  were  wild  in  the  year 
1741,  are  described  as  “ milk-white,  except  their  ears,  which 
are  generally  black.”  The  Falkland  Islands,  situated  far 
south,  with  all  the  conditions  of  life  as  different  as  it  is 
possible  to  conceive  from  those  of  the  Ladrones,  offer  a more 
interesting  case.  Cattle  have  run  wild  the  e during  eighty 
or  ninety  ^^ear.s ; and  in  the  southern  districts  the  animals 
are  mostly  white,  with  their  feet,  or  whole  heads,  or  only 
their  ears  black ; but  my  informant.  Admiral  Sulivan,^®  who 
long  resided  on  these  islands,  does  not  believe  that  they  are 
ever  purely  white.  So  that  in  these  two  archipelagos  we  see 
that  the  cattle  tend  to  become  white  with  coloured  ears.  In 
other  parts  of  the  Falkland  Islands  other  colours  prevail : 
near  Port  Pleasant  brown  is  the  common  tint ; round  Mount 


Youatt  on  Cattle,  1834,  p.  48: 
See  also  p.  242,  on  short-horn  cattle. 
Bell,  in  his  ‘ British  Quadrupeds,’  p. 
423,  states  that,  after  long  attending 
to  the  subject,  he  has  found  that 
v/^hite  cattle  invariably  have  coloured 
ears. 

Azara,  ‘Quadruples  du  Para- 


guay,’ tom.  ii.  p.  361.  Azara 
quotes  Buffon  for  the  feral  cattle  of 
Africa.  For  Texas,  see  ‘Times,’  Feb. 
18,  1846. 

Anson’s  Voyage.  See  Kerr  and 
Porter’s  ‘ Collection,’  vol.  xii.  p.  103. 

See  also  Mr.  Mackinnou’s  pam* 
phlet  on  the  Falkland  Islands,  p 24. 


90 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  III. 


Usborn,  about  half  the  animals  in  some  of  the  herds  were 
lead-  or  mouse-coloured,  which  elsewhere  is  an  unusual  tint. 
These  latter  cattle,  though  generally  inhabiting  high  land, 
breed  about  a month  earlier  than  the  other  cattle ; and  this 
circumstance  would  aid  in  keeping  them  distinct  and  in  per- 
petuating a peculiar  colour.  It  is  worth  recalling  to  mind 
tliat  blue  or  lead-coloured  marks  have  occasionally  appeared 
on  the  white  cattle  of  Chillingham.  So  plainly  different 
were  the  colours  of  the  wild  herds  in  different  paits  of  the 
Falkland  Islands,  that  in  hunting  them,  as  Admiral  Sulivan 
informs  me,  white  spots  in  one  district,  and  dark  spots  in 
another  district,  were  alwaj’s  looked  out  for  on  the  distant 
hills.  In  the  intermediate  districts,  intermediate  colours 
prevailed.  Whatever  the  cause  may  be,  this  tendency  in  the 
wild  cattle  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  are  all  descended 
from  a few  brought  from  La  Plata,  to  break  up  into  herds  of 
three  diferent  colours,  is  an  interesting  fact. 

Eeturning  to  the  several  British  breeds,  the  conspicuous 
difference  in  general  appearance  between  Short-horns,  Long- 
horns (now  rarely  seen),  Hereford.s,  Highland  cattle,  Alder- 
neys,  &c.,  must  be  familiar  to  every  one,  A part  of  this 
difference  may  be  attributed  to  descent  from  primordially 
distinct  species ; but  we  may  feel  sure  that  there  has  been 
a considerable  amount  of  variation.  Even  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period,  the  domestic  cattle  were  to  a certain  extent 
variable.  Within  recent  times  most  of  the  breeds  have  been 
modified  by  careful  and  methodical  selection.  How  strongly 
the  characters  thus  acquired  are  inherited,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  prices  realised  by  the  improved  breeds  ; even  at 
the  first  sale  of  Ceiling’s  Short-horns,  eleven  bulls  reached  an 
average  of  214Z.,  and  lately  Short-horn  bulls  have  been  sold 
for  a thousand  guineas,  and  have  been  exported  to  all  quarters 
of  the  world. 

Some  constitutional  differences  may  be  here  noticed.  The 
Short-horns  arrive  at  maturity  far  earlier  than  the  wilder 
breeds,  such  as  those  of  Wales  or  the  Highlands.  This  fact 
has  been  shown  in  an  interesting  manner  by  Mr.  Siinonds,^^ 

‘The  Asje  of  the  Ox,  Sheep,  Pig,’  &c.,  by  Prof.  James  SimcaJs,  published 
by  order  of  the  Royal  Agricult.  Soc. 


Celap.  III. 


THEIK  VARIATION. 


91 


vvh.0  lias  given  a taLle  of  tlie  average  period  of  tlieir  denti- 
tion,  v^hicli  proves  that  there  is  a difference  of  no  less  than 
six  months  in  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  incisors.  The 
period  of  gestation,  from  observations  made  by  Tessicr  on 
1131  cows,  varies  to  the  extent  of  eighty-one  days;  and  what 
is  more  interesting,  ]\1.  Lefour  affirms  “ that  the  period  of 
gestation  is  longer  in  the  large  German  cattle  than  Jn  the 
smaller  breeds.”  With  respect  to  the  period  of  conception, 
it  seems  certain  that  Alderney  and  Zetland  cows  often  become 
pregnant  earlier  than  other  breeds.^^  Lastly,  as  four  fully 
developed  mammae  is  a generic  character  in  the  genus  Bo 
it  is  worth  notice  that  with  our  domestic  cows  the  two  rudi- 
mentary mammae  often  become  fairly  well  developed  and 
yield  milk. 

As  numerous  breeds  are  generally  found  only  in  long- 
civilized  countries,  it  may  be  well  to  show  that  in  some 
countries  inhabited  by  barbarous  races,  who  are  frequently 
at  war  with  each  other,  and  therefore  have  little  free  commu- 
nication, several  distinct  breeds  of  cattle  now  exist  or  for- 
merly existed.  At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Leguat  observed, 
in  the  year  1720,  three  kinds. At  the  present  day  various 
travellers  have  noticed  the  differences  in  the  breeds  in 
Southern  Africa.  Sir  Andrew  Smith  several  years  ago 
remarked  to  me  that  the  cattle  possessed  by  the  different 
tribes  of  Caffres,  though  living  near  each  other  under  the 
same  latitude  and  in  the  same  kind  of  country,  yet  differed, 
and  he  expressed  much  surprise  at  the  fa(;t.  Mr.  Andersson 
has  descri!  ed  the  Damara,  Bechuana,  and  Namaqua  cattle; 
and  he  informs  me  in  a letter  that  the  cattle  north  of  Lake 
Ngami  are  likewise  different,  as  Mr.  Galton  has  heard  is  also 


‘Ann.  Agrioult.  France,’  April, 
18J7,  as  quoted  in  ‘The  Veterinary,’ 
rol.  xii.  p.  725.  I quote  Tessier’s  obser- 
vations from  Youatt  on  Cattle,  p. 
527. 

‘ The  Veterinary,'  vol.  viii.  p. 
681,  and  vol.  x.  p.  268.  Low’s 
' Domest.  Animals,  p.  297. 

Mr..  Ogleby,  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog. 
Soc.,’  1836,  p.  138,  and  1840,  p.  4. 
Quatj'efages  quotes  Philippi  (‘  Revue 


des  Cours  Scientifiques,’  Feb.  12,  1688, 
p.  657),  that  the  cattle  of  Piacentino 
have  thirteen  dorsal  vertebrae  and  ribs 
in»the  place  of  the  ordinary  number 
of  twelve. 

Leguat’s  Voyage,  quoted  by 
Vasey  in  his  ‘ Delineations  of  the  Ox- 
tribe,’  p.  132. 

‘Travels  in  South  Africa,’  pp. 
317,  336. 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  III. 


• 92 

the  case  with  the  cattle  of  Benguela.  The  Namaqiia  cattle 
in  size  and  shape  nearly  lesemhle  European  cattle,  and  have 
short  stout  horns  and  large  hoofs.  The  Damara  cattle  are 
very  peculiar,  l)eing  big-boned,  with  slender  legs,  and  small 
hal'd  feet ; their  tails  are  adorned  with  a tuft  of  long  bushy 
hair  nearly  touching  the  ground,  and  their  horns  are  extra- 
ordinarily large.  Tlie  Bechuana  cattle  have  even  larger  horns, 
and  there  is  now  a skull  in  London  with  the  two  horns 
8 ft.  8 J in.  long,  as  measured  in  a straight  line  from  tip  to  tip, 
and  no  less  than  13  ft.  5 in.  as  measured  along  their  curva- 
ture ! Mr.  Andersson  in  his  letter  to  me  says  that,  though 
he  will  not  venture  to  describe  the  differences  between  the 
breeds  belonging  to  the  many  different  sub-tribes,  yet  such 
certainly  exist,  as  shown  by  the  wonderful  facility  with 
which  the  natives  discriminate  them. 

That  many  breeds  of  cattle  have  originated  through 
variation,  independently  of  descent  from  distinct  species,  we 
may  infer  from  what  vt^e  see  in  South  America,  where  the 
genus  Bos  was  not  endemic,  and  where  the  cattle  which  now 
exist  in  such  vast  numbers  are  the  descendants  of  a few 
imported  from  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  Columbia,  Poulin 
describes  two  peculiar  breeds,  namely,  pelones,  with  extremely 
thin  and  fine  hair,  and  calongos,  absolutely  naked.  According 
to  Castelnau  there  are  two.  races  in  Brazil,  one  like  European 
cattle,  the  other  different,  with  remarkable  horns.  In  Para- 
guay, Azara  de.  cribes  a breed  which  certainly  originated 
in  S.  America,  called  chivos,  “ because  they  have  straight 
vertical  horns,  conical,  and  very  large  at  the  base.”  He 
likewise  describes  a dwarf  race  in  Corrientes,  with  short 
legs  and  a body  larger  than  usual.  Cattle  without  horns, 
and  others  with  reversed  hair,  have  also  originated  in 
Paraguay. 

Another  monstrous  breed,  called  niatas  or  natas,  of  which  I 
saw  two  small  herds  on  the?  northern  bank  of  the  Plata,  is  so 
remarkable  as  to  deserve  a fuller  description.  This  breed  bears 
the  same  relation  to  other  breeds,  as  bull  or  pug  dogs  do  to 

‘ Mem.  de  I’lustitut  present,  par  June  15,  184-6.  See  Azaxa,  ‘Quadru- 
livers  Savans,’  tom.  vi.,  1835,  p.  333.  pfedes  du  Paraguay,  tom.  ii.  pp.  359 
Fui  Br  azil,  see  ‘ Comptes  Rendus,’  361. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


93 


other  dogs,  or  as  improved  pigs,  according  to  H.  von  Nathnsiiis, 
do  to  common  pigs.®^  Eiitimeyer  believes  that  these  cattle 
belong  to  the  primigenius  type.®^  The  forehead  is  very  short 
and  broad,  with  the  nasal  end  of  the  skull,  together  with 
the  whole  plane  of  the  upper  molar-teeth,  curved  upwards. 
The  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper,  and  has  a corre- 
sponding upward  curvature.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that 
an  almost  similar  confirmation  characterizes,  as  I am  informed 
by  Dr.  Falconer,  the  extinct  and  gigantic  Sivatherium  of 
India,  and  is  not  known  in  any  other  ruminant.  The  upper 
lip  is  much  drawn  back,  the  nostrils  are  seated  high  up  and 
are  Avidely  open,  the  eyes  project  outwards,  and  the  horns 
are  large.  In  walking  the  head  is  carried  low,  and  the  neck 
is  short.  The  hind  legs  appear  to  be  longer,  compared  Avith 
the  front  legs,  than  is  usual.  The  exposed  incisor  teeth,  the 
short  head  and  upturned  nostrils,  give  these  cattle  the  most 
ludicrous,  self-confident  air  of  defiance.  The  skull  which  I 
presented  to  the  College  of  Surgeons  has  been  thus  described 
by  Professor  Owen  : “ It  is  remarkable  from  the  stunted 

development  of  the  nasals,  premaxillaries,  and  fore-part  of 
the  lower  jaw,  which  is  unusually  curved  upwards  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  premaxillaries.  The  nasal  bones  are 
about  one-third  the  ordinary  length,  but  retain  almost  their 
normal  breadth.  The  triangular  vacuity  is  left  between 
them,  the  frontal  and  lachrymal,  which  latter  bone  articulates 
with  the  premaxillary,  and  thus  excludes  the  maxillary  from 
any  junction  with  the  nasal.”  So  that  even  the  con- 
nexion of  some  of  the  bones  is  changed.  Other  differences 
might  be  added ; thus  the  plane  of  the  condyles  is  somewha  t 


‘ Schweineschiidel,’  1864,  s.  104. 
Nathusius  states  that  the  form  of 
skull  characteristic  in  the  niata  cattle 
occasionally  appears  in  European 
cattle ; bxit  he  is  mistaken,  as  we 
shall  hereafter  see,  in  supposing  that 
these  cattle  do  not  form  a distinct 
race.  Prof.  Wyman,  of  Cambridge, 
United  States,  informs  me  that  the 
common  cod-fish  presents  a similar 
monstrosity,  called  by  the  fishermen 
bull-dog  cod.”  Prof.  Wyman  also 


concluded,  after  making  numerous 
inquiries  in  La  Plata,  that  the  niata 
cattle  transmit  their  peculiarities  or 
form  a race. 

Ueber  Art  des  zahmen  Europ. 
Riudes,  1866,  s.  28. 

‘ Descriptive  Cat.  of  Ost.  Collect, 
of  College  of  Surgeons,’  1853,  p.  624. 
Vasey.  in  his  ‘ Delineations  of  the  Ox- 
tribe,’  has  given  a figure  of  this  skull; 
and  I sent  a photograph  of  it  to  Prof 
Rutimeyer, 


CATTLE. 


ClIAI  in 


94 

modified,  and  tlio  terminal  edge  of  the  premaxillaries  forms  an 
areli.  In  fact,  on  comparison  with  the  skull  of  a common  ox, 
scarcely  a single  hone  presents  the  same  exact  shape,  and  the 
wliole  skull  has  a wonderfully  different  appearance. 

The  first  brief  published  notice  of  this  race  was  by  Azara, 
between  the  years  1783-96  ; but  Don  F.  Muniz,  of  Luxan,  who 
has  kindly  collected  information  for  me,  states  that  about  1760 
tliese  cattle  were  kept  as  curiosities  near  Buenos  Ayres. 
Their  origin  is  not  positively  known,  but  they  must  have  ori- 
ginated subsequently  to' the  year  1552,  when  cattle  were  first 
introduced.  Senor  Muniz  informs  me  that  the  breed  is  believed 
to  have  originated  with  the  Indians  southward  of  the  Plata. 
Even  to  this  day  those  reared  near  the  Plata  show  their  less 
civilized  nature  in  being  fiercer  than  common  cattle,  and  in  the 
cow,  if  visited  too  often,  easily  deserting  her  first  calf.  The 
breed  is  very  true,  and  a niata  bull  and  cow  invariably  produce 
niata  calves.  The  breed  has  already  lasted  at  least  a century. 
A niata  bull  crossed  with  a common  cow,  and  the  reverse  cross, 
yield  oftspring  having  an  intermediate  character,  but  with 
the  niata  character  strongly  displayed.  According  to  Senor 
Muniz,  there  is  the  clearest  evidence,  contrary  to  the  common 
belief  of  agriculturists  in  analogous  cases,  that  the  niata  cow 
when  crossed  with  a common  bull  transmits  her  peculiarities 
more,  strongly  than  does  the  niata  bull  when  crossed  with  a 
common  cow.  When  the  pasture  is  tolerably  long,  these  cattle 
feed,  as  well  as  common  cattle  with  their  tongue  and  palate ; but 
during  the  great  droughts,  when  so  many  animals  perish  on  the 
Pampas,  the  niata  breed  lies  under  a great  disadvantage,  and 
would,  if  not  attended  to,  become  extinct ; for  the  common 
cattle,  like  horses,  are  able  to  keep  alive  by  browsing  with 
their  lips  on  the  twigs  of  trees  and  on  reeds  : this  the  niatas 
cannot  so  well  do,  as  their  lips  do  not  join,  and  hence  they  are 
found  to  perish  before  the  common  cattle.  This  strikes  mo 
as  a good  illustration  of  hoAv  little  we  are  able  to  judge  from 
the  ordinary  habits  of  an  animal,  on  what  circumstances, 
occurring  only  at  long  intervals  of  time,  its  rarity  or  extinc- 
tion may  depend.  It  shows  us,  also,  how  natural  selection 
would  have  determined  the  rejection  of  the  niata  modification 
had  it  arisen  in  a state  of  nature. 


Chap.  III. 


CAUSES  OF  YAKIATION. 


95 


Having  described  the  semi-monstrons  niata  breed,  I may 
allude  to  a white  bull,  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Africa, 
which  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1829,  and  which  has  been 
well  figured  by  Mr.  Harvey.®'^  It  had  a hump,  and  was  fur- 
nished with  a mane.  The  dewlap  was  peculiar,  being  divided 
between  its  fore-legs  into  parallel  divisions.  Its  lateral  hoofs 
were  annually  shed,  and  grew  to  the  length  of  five  or  six  inches. 
The  eye  was  very  peculiar,  being  remarkably  prominent,  and 
“ resembled  a cup  and  ball,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  see 
on  all  sides  with  equal  ease ; the  pupil  was  small  and  oval,  or 
rather  a parallelogram  with  the  ends  cut  off,  and  lying  trans- 
versely across  the  ball.”  A new  and  strange  breed  might 
probably  havv)  been  formed  by  careful  breeding  and  selection 
from  this  animal. 

I have  often  speculated  on  the  probable  causes  through 
which  each  separate  district  in  Great  Britain  came  to  possess 
in  former  times  its  own  peculiar  breed  of  cattle ; and  the  ques- 
tion is,  perhaps,  even  more  perplexing  in  the  case  of  Southern 
Africa.  We  now  know  that  the  differences  may  be  in  part 
attributed  to  descent  from  distinct  species ; but  this  cause  is 
far  from  sufficient.  Have  the  slight  differences  in  climate 
and  in  the  nature  of  the  pasture,  in  the  different  districts  of 
Britain,  directly  induced  corresponding  differences  in  the 
cattle?  We  have  seen  that  the  semi -wild  cattle  in  the 
several  British  parks  are  not  identical  in  colouring  or  size, 
and  that  some  degree  of  selection  has  been  requisite  to  keep 
them  true.  It  is  almost  certain  that  abundant  food  given 
during  many  generations  directly  affects  the  size  of  a breed.®^ 
That  climate  directly  affects  the  thickness  of  the  skin  and 
the  hair  is  likewise  certain : thus  Eoulin  asserts  that  the 
hides  of  the  feral  cattle  on  the  hot  Llanos  “ are  always  much 
less  heavy  than  those  of  the  cattle  raised  on  the  high  plat- 
form of  Bogota  ; and  that  these  hides  yield  in  weight  and  in 
thickness  of  hair  to  those  of  the  cattle  which  have  run  wild 
oil  the  lofty  Paramos.  ’ The  same  difference  has  been  observed 

Loudon  3 Magazine  of  Nat.  Low,  ‘ Domesticated  Animals  ol 

Hist.,’  Yol.  i.,  1829,  p.  113.  Separate  the  British  Isles,’  p.  264. 


figures  are  given  of  the  animal,  its 
hoofs,  eye,  and  dewlap. 


‘ Mem.  de  I’lnstitut  present,  par 
divers  Savans,’  tom.  vi.,  1835,  p.  332 


96 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  Ill 


in  the  hides  of  the  cattle  reared  on  the  bleak  Falkland  Islands 
and  on  the  temperate  Pampas.  Low  has  remarked  that  the 
cattle  which  inhabit  the  more  humid  parts  of  Britain  have 
longer  hair  and  thicker  skins  than  other  British  cattle. 
When  we  compare  highly  improved  stall-fed  cattle  with  tho 
wilder  breeds,  or  compare  mountain  and  lowland  breeds,  wo 
cannot  doubt  that  an  active  life,  leading  to  the  free  use  of 
the  limbs  and  lungs,  affects  the  shape  and  proportions  of  the 
whole  body.  It  is  probable  that  some  breeds,  such  as  the  semi- 
monstrous  niata  cattle,  and  some  peculiarities,  such  as  being 
hornless,  &c.,  have  appeared  suddenly  owing  to  what  we  may 
call  in  our  ignorance  spontaneous  variation  ; but  even  in  this 
case  a rude  kind  of  selection  is  necessary,  and  the  animals 
thus  characterized  must  be  at  least  partially  separated  from 
others.  This  degree  of  care,  however,  has  sometimes  been 
taken  even  in  little-civilized  districts,  where  we  should  least 
have  expected  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  niata,  chivo,  and  horn- 
less cattle  in  S.  America. 

That  methodical  selection  has  done  wonders  within  a recent 
period  in  modifying  our  cattle,  no  one  doubts.  During  the 
process  of  methodical  selection  it  has  occasionally  happened  that 
deviations  of  structure,  more  strongly  j)ronounced  than  mere 
individual  differences,  yet  by  no  means  deserving  to  be  called 
monstrosities,  have  been  taken  advantage  of ; thus  the  famous 
Long-horn  Bull,  Shakespeare,  though  of  the  pure  Canley 
stock,  “ scarcely  inherited  a single  point  of  the  long-horned 
breed,  his  horns  excepted ; yet  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Fowler, 
this  bull  greatly  improved  his  race.  We  have  also  reason  to 
believe  that  selection,  carried  on  so  far  unconsciously  that  there 
was  at  no  one  time  any  distinct  intention  to  improve  or  change 
the  breed,  has  in  the  course  of  time  modified  most  of  our 
cattle  ; for  by  this  process,  aided  by  more  abundant  food,  all  the 
lowland  British  breeds  have  increased  greatly  in  size  and  in 
early  maturity  since  the  reign  of  Henry  YII.^^  should 
never  be  forgotten  that  many  animals  have  to  be  annually 

Llom,  pp.  304,  368,  &c.  Yonatt  on  Cattle,  p.  116.  Lord 

Youatt  on  Cattle,  p.  193.  A full  ?7'encer  has  written  on  this  same 
account  of  this  bull  is  taken  from  subject 
Warshall. 


Chap.  III. 


SHEEP;  THEIK  VARIATION. 


97 


slaaghtcrecl ; so  that  each  owner  must  determine  which  shall 
be  killed  and  which  preserved  for  breeding.  In  every  district, 
as  Youatt  has  remarked,  there  is  a prejudice  in  favour  of  the 
native  breed ; so  that  animals  possessing  qualities,  whatever 
they  may  be,  which  are  most  valued  in  each  district,  will  be 
oftenest  preserved  ; and  this  unmethodical  selection  assuredly 
will  in  the  long  run  affect  the  character  of  the  whole  breed. 
But  it  may  be  asked,  can  this  rude  kind  of  selection  have  been 
practised  by  barbarians  such  as  those  of  southern  Africa  ? In 
a future  chapter  on-  Selection  we  shall  see  that  this  has 
certainly  occurred  to  some  extent.  Therefore,  looking  to  the 
origin  of  the  many  breeds  .of  cattle  which  formerly  inhabited 
the  several  districts  of  Britain,  I conclude  that,  although 
slight  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  climate,  food,  &c.,  as 
well  as  changed  habits  of  life,  aided  by  correlation  of  growth, 
and  the  occasional  appearance  from  unknown  causes  of  con- 
siderable deviations  of  structure,  have  all  probably  pla3,ed 
their  parts  ; yet  that  the  occasional  preservation  in  each 
district  of  those  individual  animals  which  were  most  valued 
by  each  owner  has  perhaps  been  even  moi  e effective  in  the 
2u-oduction  of  the  several  British  breeds.  As  soon  as  two  or 
more  breeds  were  formed  in  any  district,  or  when  new  breeds 
descended  from  distinct  species  were  introduced,  their  crossing, 
especially  if  aided  by  some  selection,  will  have  multiplied  the 
number  and  modified  the  characters  of  the  older  breeds. 

Sheep. 

I SHALL  treat  this  subject  briefly.  Most  authors  look  at  our 
domestic  sheep  as  descended  from  several  distinct  species. 
Mr.  Blyth,  who  has  carefully  attended  to  the  subject,  believes 
that  fourteen  wild  species  now  exist,  but  “ that  not  one  of 
them  can  be  identified  as  the  progenitor  of  any  one  of  the 
interminable  domestic  races.”  M.  Gervais  thinks  that 
there  are  six  species  of  Ovis,”^^  but  that  our  domestic  sheep 
form  a distinct  genus,  now  completely  extinct.  A German 

Blyth,  on  the  genus  Ovis,  in  Mr.  Blyth’s  excellent  articles  in  ‘ Land 
‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  History,’  and  Water,’  1867,  pp.  134,  156. 
vol.  vii.,  1841,  p.  261.  With  respect  Gervais,  ‘Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammiferes, 
to  the  parentage  of  the  breeds,  see  1855,  tom.  ii.  p.  191. 

8 


98 


SHEEP : 


Chaf.  Ill, 


naturalist'^  believes  that  our  sbeep  descend  from  ten  aborigi- 
nally distinct  species,  of  wliich  only  one  is  still  living  in  a wild 
state  I Another  ingenious  observer, though  not  a naturalist, 
with  a bold  defiance  of  everything  known  on  geographical  dis- 
tribution, infers  that  the  sheep  of  Great  Britain  alone  are  the 
descendants  of  eleven  endemic  British  forms ! Under  such 
a hopeless  state  of  doubt  it  would  be  useless  for  my  purpose 
to  give  a detailed  account  of  the  several  breeds ; but  a few 
remarks  may  be  added. 

Sheep  have  been  domesticated  from  a very  ancient  period, 
Eiitimeyer  found  in  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings  the  remains  of 
a small  breed,  with  thin  tall  legs,  and  horns  like  those  of  a 
goat,  thus  differing  somewhat  from  any  kind  now  known. 
Almost  every  country  has  its  own  peculiar  breed  ; and  many 
countries  have  several  breeds  differing  greatly  from  each  other. 
One  of  the  most  strongly  marked  races  is  an  Eastern  one  with 
a Icng  tail,  including,  according  to  Pallas,  twenty  vertebrae, 
and  so  loaded  with  fat  that  it  is  sometimes  placed  on  a truck, 
which  is  dragged  about  by  the  living  animal.  These  sheep, 
though  ranked  by  Pitzinger  as  a distinct  aboriginal  form, 
bear  in  their  drooping  ears  the  stamp  of  long  domestication. 
This  is  likewise  the  case  with  those  sheep  which  have  two 
great  masses  of  fat  on  the  rump,  with  the  tail  in  a rudimen- 
tary condition.  The  Angola  variety  of  the  long-tailed  race 
has  curious  masses  of  fat  on  the  back  of  the  head  and  beneath 
the  jaws.'^^  Mr.  Hodgson  in  an  admirable  paper  on  the 
sheep  of  the  Himalaya  infers  from  the  distribution  of  the 
several  races,  “ that  this  caudal  augmentation  in  most  of  its 
phases  is  an  instance  of  degeneracy  in  these  pre-eminently 
Alpine  animals.”  The  horns  present  an  endless  diversity  in 
character;  being  not  rarely  absent,  especially  in  the  female 
sex,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  amounting  to  four  or  even  eight 
in  number.  The  horns,  when  numerous,  arise  from  a crest 
on  the  frontal  bone,  which  is  elevated  in  a peculiar  manner. 

Dr.  L.  Fitzinger,  ‘ Ueber  die  vol.  ii.  p.  264. 

Racen  des  Zahmen  Schafes,’  1860,  s.  ‘ Pfahlbauten,’ s.  127,  193. 

86.  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  120. 

” J.  Anderson,  ‘ Recreations  in  ‘ Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Soc.  of 

Agriculture  and  Natural  History,’  Bengal,’  vol.  xvi.  pp.  1007,  1016. 


Chap.  Ill 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


99 


It  is  remarkable  that  multiplicity  of  horns  “is  generally 
accompanied  by  great  length  and  coarseness  of  the  fleece.” 
This  correlation,  however,  is  far  from  being  general;  for 
instance,  I am  informed  by  Mr.  D.  Forbes,  that  the  Spanish 
sheep  in  Chile  resemble,  in  fleece  and  in  all  other  characters, 
their  parent  merino-race,  except  that  instead  of  a pair  they 
generally  bear  four  horns.  The  existence  of  a pair  of  mammaa 
is  a generic  character  in  the  genus  Ovis  as  well  as  in  several 
allied  forms  ; nevertheless,  as  Mr.  Hodgson  has  remarked, 
“ this  character  is  not  absolutely  constant  even  among  the 
true  and  proper  sheep : for  I have  more  than  once  met  with 
Cagias  (a  sub- Himalayan  domestic  race)  possessed  of  four 
teats.”  This  case  is  the  more  remarkable  as,  when  any 
part  or  organ  is  present  in  reduced  number  in  comparison 
v/ith  the  same  part  in  allied  groups,  it  usually  is  subject  to 
little  variation.  The  presence  of  interdigital  pits  has  like- 
wise been  considered  as  a generic  distinction  in  sheep  ; but 
Isidore  Geoffrey®^  has  shown  that  these  pits  or  pouches  are 
absent  in  some  breeds. 

In  sheep  there  is  a strong  tendency  for  characters,  which 
have  apparently  been  acquired  under  domestication,  to  become 
attached  either  exclusively  to  the  male  sex,  or  to  be  more 
highly  developed  in  this  than  in  the  other  sex.  Thus  in 
many  breeds  the  horns  are  deficient  in  the  ewe,  though  this 
likewise  occurs  occasionally  with  the  female  of  the  wild 
musmon.  In  the  rams  of  the  Wallachian  breed,  “ the  horns 
spring  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  frontal  bone,  and 
then  take  a beautiful  spiral  form ; in  the  ewes  they  protrude 
nearly  at  right  angles  from  the  head,  and  then  become  twisted 
in  a singular  manner.”  Mr.  Hodgson  states  that  the  ex- 
traordinarily arched  nose  or  chaffron,  which  is  so  highly 
developed  in  several  foreign  breeds,  is  characteristic  of  the 
ram  alone,  and  apparently  is  the  result  of  domestication. 

I hear  from  Mr.  Blyth  that  the  accum  ulation  of  fat  in  the 
fat-tailed  sheep  of  the  plains  of  India  is  greater  in  the  male 

Youatt  on  ohcep,  pp.  142-169.’  435. 

‘Journal  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Bengal,  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p,  138. 

•■ol.  xvi.,  1847,  p.  1015.  ‘Journal  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Bengal, 

***  ‘Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,  tom.  iii.  p.  vol.  xvi.,  1847,  pp.  1015,  1016. 


100 


SHEEP : 


Chai-  II] 


than  in  the  female ; and  Fitzinger  remarks  that  the  mane 
in  the  African  maned  race  is  far  more  developed  in  the  ram 
than  in  the  ewe. 

Diiferent  races  of  sheep,  like  cattle,  present  constitutional 
differences.  Thus  the  improved  breeds  arrive  at  maturity  at 
an  early  age,  as  has  been  well  shown  by  Mr.  Simonds  througli 
their  early  average  period  of  dentition.  The  several  i-aces 
have  become  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  pasture  and 
climate : for  instance,  no  one  can  rear  Leicester  sheep  on 
mountainous  regions,  where  Cheviots  flourish.  As  Youatt 
has  remarked,  “ In  all  the  different  districts  of  Great  Britain 
we  And  various  breeds  of  sheep  beautifully  adapted  to  the 
locality  which  they  occupy.  No  one  knows  their  origin  ; 
they  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  climate,  pasturage,  and  the 
locality  on  which  they  graze;  they  seem  to  have  been  formed 
for  it  and  by  it.”  Marshall  relates  that  a flock  of  heavy 
Lincolnshire  and  light  Norfolk  sheep  which  had  been  bred 
together  in  a large  sheep-walk,  part  of  which  was  low,  rich, 
and  moist,  and  another  part  high  and  dry,  with  benty  grass, 
when  turned  out,  regularly  separated  from  each  other  ; the 
heavy  sheep  drawing  off  to  the  rich  soil,  and  the  lighter  sheep 
to  their  own  soil ; so  that  “ whilst  there  was  plenty  of  grass 
the  two  breeds  kept  themselves  as  distinct  as  rooks  and 
pigeons.”  Numerous  sheep  from  various  parts  of  the  world 
have  been  brought  during  a long  course  of  years  to  the 
Zoological  Gardens  of  London ; but  as  Youatt»  who  attended 
the  animals  as  a veterinary  surgeon,  remarks,  “ few  or  none 
die  of  the  rot,  but  they  are  phthisical ; not  one  of  them  from 
a torrid  climate  lasts  out  the  second  year,  and  when  they  die 
their  lungs  are  tuberculated.”  There  is  very  good  evidence 
that  English  breeds  of  sheep  will  not  succeed  in  France.^*^ 
Even  in  certain  parts  of  England  it  has  been  found  im- 


‘ Racen  des  Zahmen  Schafes,’  s. 
77. 

‘ Rural  Economy  of  Norfolk,’  vol. 
d.  p.  136. 

Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  312.  On 
same  subject,  see  excellent  remarks  in 
‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1858,  p.  868. 
For  experiments  in  crossing  Cheviot 


sheep  with  Leicosters,  see  Youatt,  p. 
325. 


Youatt  on  Sheep,  note,  p.  491. 

**  Ivl.  Malingie-Nouel  Journal  R. 
Agricult.  Soc.,  vol.  xiv.  1853,  p.  214. 
Translated  and  therefore  approved  by 
a great  authority,  Mr.  Pusey. 


ClIAi>.  III. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


10] 


possible  to  keep  certain  breeds  of  sbeep  ; thus  on  a farm  on 
the  banks  of  the  Ouse,  the  Leicester  sheep  were  so  rapidly- 
destroyed  by  pleuritis  that  the  owner  could  not  keep  them ; 
the  coarser-skinned  sheep  never  being  affected. 

The  period  of  gestation  was  formerly  thought  to  be  of  sl- 
unalterable  a character,  that  a supposed  difference  of  this  kind 
Ijetween  the  wolf  and  the  dog  was  esteemed  a sure  sign  of 
specific  distinction ; but  we  have  seen  that  the  period  is 
shorter  in  the  improved  breeds  of  the  pig,  and  in  the  larger 
breeds  of  the  ox,  than  in  other  breeds  of  these  two  animals. 
And  now  we  know,  on  the  excellent  authority  of  Hermann 
von  Nathusius,^°  that  Merino  and  Southdown  sheep,  when 
both  have  long  been  kept  under  exactly  the  same  conditions, 
differ  in  their  average  period  of  gestation,  as  is  seen  in  the 
following  Table  : — 

Merinos 150-3  days. 

Southdowns 144-2  „ 

Half-bred  Merinos  and  Soutlido WHS  ..  146-3  „ 

f blood  of  Southdown  145-5  „ 

i „ . 144-2  „ 

In  this  graduated  difference  in  cross-bred  animals  having 
different  proportions  of  Southdown  blood,  we  see  how  strictly 
the  two  periods  of  gestation  have  been  transmitted.  Nathu- 
sius  remarks  that,  as  Southdowns  grow  with  remarkable 
rapidity  after  birth,  it  is  not  surjDrising  that  their  foetal 
development  should  have  been  shortened.  It  is  of  course 
possible  that  the  difference  in  these  two  breeds  may  be  due 
to  their  descent  from  distinct  parent-species ; but  as  the 
early  maturity  of  the  Southdowns  has  long  been  carefully 
attended  to  by  breeders,  the  difference  is  more  probably  the 
result  of  such  attention.  Lastly,  the  fecundity  of  the  several 
breeds  differs  much;  some  generally  producing  twins  or  even 
triplets  at  a birth,  of  which  fact  the  curious  Shangai  sheej) 
(with  their  truncated  and  rudimentar}?-  ears,  and  great  Koniaii 
noses),  lately  exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  offer  a 
remarkable  instance. 

Sheep  are  perhaps  more  readily  affected  by  the  direct  action 

™ ‘The  Veterinary,’  vol.  x.  p.  217.  given  in  ‘ Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  d’Acclim.'^t,/ 
A.  translation  of  his  paper  is  tom.  ix.,  1862,  d. 


102 


SHEEP: 


Chap.  III. 


of  the  conditions  of  life  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  than 
almost  any  other  domestic  animal.  According  to  Pallas,  and 
more  recently  according  to  Erman,  the  fat- tailed  Kirghisian 
slieep,  when  bred  for  a few  generations  in  Eussia,  degenerate, 
and  the  mass  of  fat  dwindles  away,  “ the  scanty  and  bitter 
herbage  of  the  steppes  seems  so  essential  to  their  develop 
ment.”  Pallas  makes  an  analogous  statement  with  respect 
to  one  of  the  Crimean  breeds.  Burnes  states  that  the 
Karakool  breed,  which  produces  a fine,  curled,  black,  and 
valuable  fleece,  when  removed  from  its  own  canton  near 
Bokhara  to  Persia  or  to  other  quarters,  loses  its  peculiar 
fleece.^^  In  all  such  cases,  however,  it  may  be  that  a change 
of  any  kind  in  the  conditions  of  life  causes  variability  and 
consequent  loss  of  character,  and  not  that  certain  conditions 
are  necessary  for  the  development  of  certain  characters. 

G reat  heat,  however,  seems  to  act  directly  on  the  fleece : 
several  accounts  have  been  published  of  the  change  which 
sheep  imported  from  Europe  undergo  in  the  West  Indies. 
I)r.  Ivicholson  of  Antigua  informs  me  that,  after  the  third 
generation,  the  wool  disappears  from  the  whole  body,  except 
over  the  loins  ; and  the  animal  then  appears  like  a goat  with 
a dirty  door  mat  on  its  back.  A similar  change  is  said  to 
take  place  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. On  the  other  hand, 
many  wool-bearing  sheep  live  on  the  hot  plains  of  India. 
Eoulin  asserts  that  in  the  lower  and  heated  valleys  of  the 
Cordillera,  if  the  lambs  are  sheared  as  soon  as  the  wool  has 
grown  to  a certain  thickness,  all  goes  on  afterwards  as  usual ; 
but  if  not  sheared,  the  wool  detaches  itself  in  flakes,  and 
short  shining  hair  like  that  on  a goat  is  produced  ever 
afterwards.  This  curious  result  seems  merely  to  be  an  ex- 
aggerated tendency  natural  to  the  Merino  breed,  for  as  a 


***  Erman’s  ‘Travels  in  Siberia’ 
(^Eng.  trans.),  vol.  i.  ]).  2‘28.  Foi-  Fallas 
on  the  fat-tailed  shet>]>,  1 quote  from 
Anderson’s  account  of  the  ‘ Sheep  of 
Russia,’  1794,  j).  34.  With  respect 
to  the  Crimean  sheep,  ^ee  Pallas’ 
‘Travels’  (Eng.  trans.),  vol.  ii.  p.  454. 
For  the  Karakool  sheep,  see  Burnes’ 
‘Travels  in  Bokhara,’  vol.  iii.  p.  l.M. 

See  Report  cf  the  Directors  of 


the  Sierra  Leone  Company,  as  quoted 
in  White’s  ‘Gradation  of  Man,’  p.  95. 
With  respect  to  the  change  which 
sheep  undergo  in  the  West  Judies,  s-^e 
also  Dr.  Davy,  in  ‘ Edin.  New.  Phil. 
Journal,’  Jan.  1852.  For  the  state- 
ment made  by  Roulin,  see  ‘ Mem.  d*' 
I’lnstitut  present,  par  divers  Stivau.s.’ 
tom.  vi.,  1835,  p.  347. 


Chap.  Ill 


CAUSES  OF  VARIATION. 


103 


great  autliority,  namely,  Lord  Somerville,  remarks,  “the 
wool  of  oui  Merino  sheep  after  shear- time  is  hard  and  coarse 
to  such  a degree  as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  to  suppose 
that  the  same  animal  could  bear  wool  so  opposite  in  quality, 
compared  to  that  which  has  been  clipped  from  it : as  the 
cold  weather  advances,  the  fleeces  recover  their  soft  quality.’’ 
As  in  sheep  of  all  breeds  the  fleece  naturally  consi^s-ol 
longer  and  coarser  hair  covering  shorter  and  softer  wool,  the 
change  which  it  often  undergoes  in  hot  climates  is  probably 
merely  a case  of  unequal  development ; for  even  with  those 
sheep  which  like  goats  are  covered  with  hair,  a small  quantity 
of  underlying  wool  may  always  be  found. In  the  wild 
mountain-sheep  (Ovis  montana)  of  North  America  there  is  an 
analogous  annual  change  of  coat ; “ the  wool  begins  to  drop 
out  in  earl}^  spring,  leaving  in  its  place  a coat  of  hair  resem- 
bling that  of  the  elk,  a change  of  pelage  quite  different  in 
character  from  the  ordinary  thickening  of  the  coat  or  hair, 
common  to  all  furred  animals  in  winter, — for  instance,  in  the 
horse,  the  cow,  &c.,  which  shed  their  winter  coat  in  the 
spring.” 

A slight  difference  in  climate  or  j^asture  sometimes  slightly 
affects  the  fleece,  as  has  been  observed  even  in  different  districts 
in  England,  and  is  well  shown  by  the  great  softness  of  the 
wool  brought  from  Southern  Australia.  But  it  should  be 
observed,  as  Youatt  repeatedly  insists,  that  the  tendency  to 
change  may  generally  be  counteracted  by  careful  selection. 
M.  Lasterye,  after  discussing  this  subject,  sums  up  as 
follows  ; “ The  preservation  of  the  Merino  race  in  its  utmost 
purity  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  the  marshes  of  Holland, 
and  under  the  rigorous  climate  of  Sweden,  furnishes  an  ad 
ditional  support  of  this  my  unalterable  principle,  that  fine* 
vvuolled  sheep  may  be  kept  wherever  industrious  men  and 

telligent  breeders  exist.” 

That  methodical  selection  has  effected  great  changes  in 

Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  69,  where  tion  counteracting  any  tendency  to 
Lord  Somerville  is  quoted.  See  p.  117,  change,  see  pp.  70,  117,  120,  168". 

on  the  presence  of  wool  under  the  Audubon  and  Bachman,  ‘The 

hair.  With  respect  to  the  fleeces  of  Quadrupeds  of  North  America,’  184-6, 
Australian  shoep,  p.  185.  On  selec*  vdl.  v.  p.  365. 


104 


SHEEP: 


Chap.  III. 


several  breeds  of  sheep  no  one  who  knows  anything  on  the 
subject,  entertains  a doubt.  The  case  of  the  Southdowns,  as 
improved  by  Ellman,  offers  perhaps  the  most  striking  in- 
stance. Unconscious  or  occasional  selection  has  likewise 
slowly  produced  a great  effect,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapters 
on  Selection.  That  crossing  has  largely  modified  some  breeds, 
no  one  who  will  study  what  has  been  written  on  this  subject 
— for  instance,  Mr.  Spooner’s  paper — will  dispute;  but  to 
produce  uniformity  in  a crossed  breed,  careful  selection  and 
“ rigorous  weeding,”  as  this  author  expresses  it,  are  indis- 
pensable.^^ 

In  some  few  instances  new  breeds  have  suddenly  originated ; 
thus,  in  1791,  a ram-lamb  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  having 
short  crooked  legs  and  a long  back,  like  a turnspit-dog.  From 
this  one  lamb  the  otter  or  ancon  semi-monstrous  breed  was 
x-aised  ; as  these  sheep  could  not  leap  over  the  fences,  it  was 
thought  that  they  would  be  valuable ; but  they  have  been 
supplanted  by  merinos,  and  thus  exterminated.  The  sheep 
are  remarkable  from  transmitting  their  character  so  truly 
that  Colonel  Humphreys  never  heard  of  “ but  one  question- 
able case”  of  an  ancon  ram  and  ewe  not  producing  ancon 
offspring.  When  they  are  crossed  with  other  breeds  the 
offspring,  with  rare  exceptions,  instead  of  being  intermediate 
in  character,  perfectly  resemble  either  parent;  even  one  of 
twins  has  resembled  one  parent  and  the  second  the  other. 
Lastly,  “the  ancons  ha'^  been  observed  to  keep  together, 
separating  themselves  f/om  the  rest  of  the  flock  when  put 
into  enclosures  with  other  sheep.” 

A more  interesting  case  has  been  recorded  in  the  Report  of 
the  Juries  for  the  Great  Exhibition  (1851),  namely,  the  pro- 
iluction  of  a merino  ram-lamb  on  the  Mauchamp  farm,  in  1828, 
which  was  remarkable  for  its  long,  smooth,  straight,  and.  silky 
wool.  By  the  year  1833  M.  Graux  had  raised  rams  enough  to 
serve  his  whole  flock,  and  after  a few  more  years  he  was  able 
to  sell  stock  of  his  new  breed.  So  peculiar  and  valuable  is  the 
wool,  that  it  sells  at  25  per  cent,  above  the  best  merino  wool : 

‘Journal  of  R.  Agricult.  Soc.  of  ‘Philosoph. Transactions,’ Loudon, 

England,’  vol.  xy  , ^ .vt  ii.,  VV.  C.  1813,  p.  88. 

Spooner  on  cross-Breeding. 


Chap.  111. 


GOATS. 


105 


even  the  fleeces  of  half-bred  animals  are  valuable,  and  are 
knovm  in  France  as  the  “ Manchamp-merino.”  It  is  inter- 
esting, as  showing  how  generally  any  marked  deviation  of 
structure  is  accompanied  by  other  deviations,  that  the  first 
ram  and  his  immediate  offspring  were  of  small  size,  witlj 
large  heads,  long  necks,  narrow  chests,  and  long  flanks ; but 
these  blemishes  were  removed  by  judicious  crosses  and  selec- 
tion. The  long  smooth  wool  was  also  correlated  with  smooth 
horns;  and  as  horns  and  hair  are  homologous  structures, 
we  can  understand  the  meaning  of  this  correlation.  If  the 
Mauchamp  and  ancon  breeds  had  originated  a century  or  two 
ago,  we  should  have  had  no  record  of  their  birth ; and  many 
a naturalist  would  no  doubt  have  insisted,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  Mauchamp  race,  that  they  had  each  descended 
from,  or  been  crossed  with,  some  unknown  aboriginal  form. 


Goats. 


Fro]\i  the  recent  researches  of  M.  Brandt,  most  naturalists  now 
believe  that  all  our  goats  are  descended  from  the  Capra  cegagrus 
of  the  mountains  of  Asia,  possibly  mingled  with  the  allied 
Indian  species  G.  falconeri  of  India.^^  In  Switzerland,  during 
tlie  neolithic  period,  the  domestic  goat  was  commoner  than  the 
slieep ; and  this  very  ancient  race  differed  in  no  respect  from 
that  now  common  in  Switzerland.^®  At  the  present  time,  the 
many  races  found  in  several  parts  of  the  world  differ  greatly 
from  each  other  ; nevertheless,  as  far  as  they  have  been  tried, 
tliey  are  all  quite  fertile  when  crossed.  So  numerous  are  the 
bleeds,  that  Mr.  G.  Clark  has  described  eight  distinct  kinds 
imported  into  the  one  island  of  Mauritius.  The  ears  of  one 
kind  were  enoi’mously  developed,  being,  as  measured  by 
Mr.  Clark,  no  less  than  19  inches  in  length  and  inches  iu 
breadth.  As  with  cattle,  the  mammae  of  those  breeds  which 
are  regularly  milked  become  greatly  developed  ; and,  as 


Isidore  GeofFroy  St.  Hilaire, 
"Hist.  Nat.  Generale,’  tom.  iii.  p.  87. 
Mr.  Blyth  (‘Land  and  Water,’  18H7, 
p,  37)  has  arrived  at  a similar  con- 
clusion, but  he  thinks  that  certain 
Eastern  laces  may  perhaps  be  in  part 
descended  From  the  Asiatic  raarkhor. 


Riitimeyer,  ‘ Pfiihlbauten,’ .s.  127, 
Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espfece,’  tom.  i.  p 

402. 

‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat 
History,’  vol.  ii.  (2nd  series),  1848, 
p.  363. 


• IOC 


GOATS. 


Chai>.  Ill 


Mr.  Clark  remarks,  “ it  is  not  rare  to  see  their  teats  touching 
the  ground.”  The  following  cases  are  worth  notice  as  pre- 
senting unusual  points  of  variation.  According  to  Godron,^*^^ 
the  niaminye  differ  greatly  in  shape  in  different  breeds,  being 
elongated  in  the  common  goat,  hemispherical  in  the  Angora 
race,  and  bilobed  and  divergent  in  the  goats  of  Syria  and 
Nubia.  According  to  this  same  author,  the  males  of  certain 
breeds  have  lost  their  usual  offensive  odour.  In  one  of  the 
Indian  breeds  the  males  and  females  have  horns  of  widely- 
different  shapes  ; and  in  some  breeds  the  females  are  desti- 
tute of  horns.^®^  M.^Eamu  of  Nancy  informs  me  that  many 
of  the  goats  there  bear  on  the  upper  part  of  the  throat  a pair 
of  hairy  appendages,  70  mm.  in  length  and  about  10  mm. 
in  diameter,  whieh  in  external  appeai-ance  resemble  those 
above  described  on  the  jaws  of  pigs.  The  presence  of  inter- 
digital pits  or  glands  on  all  four  feet  has  been  thought  to 
characterise  the  genus  Ovis,  and  their  absence  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  the  genus  Capra  ; but  Mr.  Hodgson  has  found  that 
they  exist  in  the  front  feet  of  the  majority  of  Himalayan 
goats. Mr.  Hodgson  measured  the  intestines  in  two  goats  of 
the  Dugu  race,  and  he  found  that  the  proportional  length  of  the 
great  and  small  intestines  differed  considerably.  In  one  of  these 
goats  the  caseum  was  thirteen  inches,  and  in  the  other  no  less 
than  thirty-six  inches  in  length  ! 


101  ‘ De  PEspeee,’  tom.  i.  p.  406. 
Mr.  Clark  also  refers  to  differences  in 
the  shape  of  the  mammae.  Gordon 
states  that  in  the  Nubian  race  the 
scrotum  is  divided  into  two  lobes ; 
and  Mr.  Clark  gives  a ludicrous  proof 
of  this  fact,  for  he  saw  in  the  Mauri- 
tius a male  goat  of  the  Muscat  breed 
purchased  at  a high  price  for  a female 
in  full  milk.  These  differences  in 
the  scrotum  are  probably  not  due  to 


descent  from  distinct  species:  for 
Mr.  Clark  states  that  this  part  varies 
much  in  form. 

102  Mr.  Clark,  ‘ Annals  and  Mag. 
of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol.  ii.  (2nd  series), 
1848,  p.  361. 

103  Hesinarest,  ‘ Encyclop.  Method. 
Mammalogie,’  p.  480. 

104  ‘ Journal  of  Asiatic  Soc.  of 
Bengal,’  vol.  xvi.,  1847,  pp.  1020, 
1025. 


Chap.  IV. 


RABBITS;  THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


107 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DOMESTIC  RABBITS.  — . 

DO’VIESTIC  BABBITS  DESCENDED  FROM  THE  COMMON  WILD  RABBIT — ANCIENT 

DOMESTICATION ANCIENT  SELECTION  — LARGE  LOP-EARED  RABBITS  — 

VARIOUS  BREEDS — FLUCTUATING  CHARACTERS — ORIGIN  OF  THE  HIMALAYAN 
BREED — CURIOUS  CASE  OP  INHERITANCE — ^FERAL  RABBITS  IN  JAMAICA 
AND  THE  FALKLAND  ISLANDS — PORTO  SANTO  FERAL  RABBITS — OSTEO- 
LOGICAL  CHARACTERS — SKULL — SKULL  OP  HALF-LOP  RABBITS — VARIATIONS 
IN  THE  SKULL  ANALOGOUS  TO  DIFFERENCES  IN  DIFFERENT  SPECIES  OP 
HARES — VERTEBRAE — STERNUM — SCAPULA — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE 
ON  THE  PROPORTIONS  OP  THE  LIMBS  AND  BODY — CAPACITY  OF  THE 
SKUDL  AND  REDUCED  SIZE  OF  THE  BRAIN — SUBIMARY  ON  THE  MODIFICA- 
TIONS OF  DOMESTICATED  RABBITS. 

All  naturalists,  with,  as  far  as  I know,  a single  exception, 
believe  that  the  several  domestic  breeds  of  the  rabbit  are  de- 
scended from  the  common  wild  species ; I shall  therefore 
describe  them  more  carefully  than  in  the  previous  cases. 
Professor  Gervais  ^ states  “ that  the  true  wild  rabbit  is  smaller 
than  the  domestic ; its  proportions  are  not  absolutely  the 
same ; its  tail  is  smaller ; its  ears  are  shorter  and  more 
thickly  clothed  with  hair ; and  these  characters,  without 
speaking  of  colour,  are  so  many  indications  opposed  to  the 
opinion  which  unites  these  animals  under  the  same  specific 
denomination.”  Few  naturalists  will  agree  with  this  author 
that  such  slight  differences  are  sufficient  to  separate  as 
distinct  species  the  wild  and  domestic  rabbit.  How  extra- 
ordinary it  would  be,  if  close  confinement,  perfect  tameness, 
unnatural  food,  and  careful  bleeding,  all  prolonged  during 
many  generations,  had  not  produced  at  least  some  effect ! 
The  tame  rabbit  has  been  domesticated  from  an  ancient  period. 
Confucius  ranges  rabbits  among  animals  worthy  to  be  sacri- 
ficed to  the  gods,  and,  as  he  - prescribes  their  multiplication, 
they  were  probably  at  this  early  period  domesticated  in  China. 
They  are  mentioned  by  several  of  the  classical  writers.  In 

* M.  P.  Gervais,  ‘Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammi feres,’  18.‘»4,  tom.  i.,  p.  288. 


108 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS  : 


Chap.  I V. 


1631  Gcrvaiso  Markham  writes,  “You  shall  not,  as  in  other 
cattell,  looke  to  their  shape,  but  to  their  richnesse,  onely  elect 
your  buckes,  the  largest  and  goodliest  conies  you  can  get ; 
and  for  the  richnesse  of  the  skin,  that  is  accounted  the 
richest  which  hath  the  equallest  mixture  of  blacke  and  whit'^ 
haire  together,  yet  the  blacke  rather  shadowing  the  white ; tlie 

t’urre  should  be  thicke,  deepe,  smooth,  and  shining ; 

they  are  of  body  much  fatter  and  larger,  and,  when  anothci 
skin  is  worth  two  or  three  pence,  they  are  worth  two  shillings.” 
From  this  full  description  we  see  that  silver-grey  rabbits 
existed  in  England  at  this  period  ; and  -what  is  far  more 
important,  we  see  that  the  breeding  or  selection  of  rabbits  was 
tlien  carefully  attended  to.  Aldrovandi,  in  1637,  describes, 
on  the  authority  of  several  old  writers  (as  Scaliger,  in  1557), 
rabbits  of  various  colours,  some  “ like  a hare,”  and  he  adds  that 
P.  Valerianus  (who  died  a very  old  man  in  1558)  saw  at 
Verona  rabbits  foru:  times  bigger  than  ours.^ 

From  the  fact  of  the  rabbit  having  been  domesticatc\l  at  an 
ancient  period,  we  must  look  to  the  northern  hemisphere  of  the 
Old  World,  and  to  the  warmer  temperate  regions  alone,  for 
the  aboriginal  parent-form ; for  the  rabbit  cannot  live  without 
protection  in  countries  as  cold  as  Sweden,  and,  though  it  has 
run  wild  in  the  tro]3ical  island  of  Jamaica,  it  has  never  greatly 
multiplied  there.  It  now  exists,  and  has  long  existed,  in  the 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  for  fossil  remains  have  been 
found  in  several  countries.^  The  domestic  rabbit  readily 
becomes  feral  in  these  same  countries,  and  when  variously 
coloured  kinds  are  turned  out  they  generally  revert  to  the 
ordinary  grey  colour.^  Wild  rabbits,  if  taken  young,  can  be 
domesticated,  though  the  process  is  generally  very  trouble- 
some.^ The  various  domestic  races  are  often  crossed,  and  are 


2 U.  Aldrovandi,  ‘De  Quadrupedi- 
bus  digitatis,’  1637,  p.  383.  For  Con- 
fucius and  G.  Markham,  see  a writer 
who  has  studied  the  subject,  in 
‘Cottage  Gardener,’  Jan.  22nd,  1861, 
p.  250. 

3 Owen,  ‘ British  Fossil  Mammals,’ 

p.  212. 

4 Bechstein,  ‘ Naturgesch.  Dcutsch- 


lands,’  1801,  b.  i.  p.  1133.  I have  re- 
ceived similar  accounts  with  respect 
to  England  and  Scotland. 

6 ‘ Pigeons  and  Rabbits,’  by  E.  S. 
Delamer,  1854,  p.  133.  Sir  J.  Se- 
bright (‘  Observations  on  Instinct,’ 
1836,  p.  10)  speaks  most  strongly  on 
the  difficulty.  But  this  difficulty  is 
not  invariable,  as  I have  received  two 


Cha>.  IV. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


109 


believed  to  be  quite  fertile  together,  and  a perfect  gradation 
can  be  shown  to  exist  from  the  largest  domestic  kinds,  having 
enormously  develoj)ed  ears,  to  the  common  wild  kind.  The 
parent-form  must  have  been  a burrowing  animal,  a habit  not 
comm.on,  as  far  as  I can  discover,  to  any  other  species  in  the 
large  genus  Lepus.  Only  one  wild  species  is  known  with 
certainty  to  exist  in  Europe  ; but  the  rabbit  (if  it  be  a true 
rabbit)  from  Mount  Sinai,  and  likewise  that  from  Algeria,' 
present  slight  differences ; and  these  forms  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  authors  as  specifically  distinct.®  But  such 
slight  differences  would  aid  us  little  in  explaining  the  more 
considerable  differences  characteristic  of  the  several  domestic 
races.  If  the  latter  are  the  descendants  of  two  or  more  closely 
allied  species,  these,  with  the  exception  of  the  common  rabbit, 
have  been  exterminated  in  a wild  state  ; and  this  is  very  im- 
probable, seeing  with  what  pertinacity  this  animal  holds  its 
ground.  From  these  several  reasons  we  may  infer  with 
safety  that  ail  the  domestic  breeds  are  the  descendants  of  the 
common  wild  species.  But  from  what  we  hear  of  the  mar- 
vellous success  in  France  in  rearing  hybrids  between  the 
hare  and  rabbit,''  it  is  possible,  though  not  probable,  from  the 
great  difficulty  in  making  the  first  cross,  that  some  of  the 
larger  races,  which  are  coloured  like  the  hare,  may  have  been 
modified  by  crosses  with  this  animal.  Nevertheless,  the  chief 
differences  in  the  skeletons  of  the  several  domestic  breeds 
cannot,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  have  been  derived  from  a 
cross  with  the  hare. 

There  are  many  breeds  which  transmit  their  characters 
more  or  less  truly.  Every  one  has  seen  the  enormous  lop- 
eared  rabbits  exhibited  at  our  shows  ; various  allied  sub- 
breeds  are  reared  on  the  Continent,  such  as  the  so-called 
Andalusian,  which  is  said  to  have  a large  head  with  a round 
forehead,  and  to  attain  a greater  size  than  any  other  kind  ; 
another  large  Paris  breed  is  named  the  Eouennais,  and  has  a 


accounts  of  perfect  success  in  taming 
and  breeding  from  the  wild  rabbit. 
iSee  also  Dr.  P.  Broca,  in  ‘ Journal  de 
la  Physiologic,'  torn.  ii.  p.  368. 

® Gervais,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  des  Marami- 


feres,’  tom.  i.  p.  292. 

’’  See  Dr.  P.  Broca’s  interesting 
memoir  on  this  subject  in  Brown- 
Sequard’s  ^ Journ.  de  Phys.,’  vol.  ii. 
p.  367. 


no 


DOMESTIC  EADBITS: 


Chap.  IV 


square  head ; the  so-called  Patagonian  rabbit  has  remarkably 
short  ears  and  a large  round  head.  Although  I have  not  seen 
all  these  breeds,  I feel  some  doubt  about  there  being  any  marked 
difference  in  the  shape  of  their  skulls.*  English  lop-eared 
rabbits  often  weigh  8 lbs.  or  10  lbs.,  and  one  has  been  ex- 
hibited weighing  18  lbs. ; whereas  a full-sized  wild  rabbit 
weighs  only  about  3^  lbs.  The  head  or  skull  in  all  the  largo 
lop-eared  rabbits  examined  by  me  is  much  longer  relativelj’ 
to  its  breadth  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  Many  of  them  have 
loose  transverse  folds  of  skin  or  dewlaps  beneath  the  throat, 
which  can  be  pulled  out  so  as  to  reach  nearly  to  the  ends  of 
the  jaws.  Their  ears  are  prodigiously  developed,  and  hang 
down  on  each  side  of  their  faces.  A rabbit  was  exhibited  in 
1867  with  its  two  ears,  measured  from  the  tip  of  one  to  the 
tip  of  the  other,  22  inches  in  length,  and  each  ear  6|  inches 
in  breadth.  In  1869  one  was  exhibited  with  ears,  measured 
in  the  same  manner,  23^-  in  length  and  5;^  in  breadth ; “ thus 
exceeding  any  rabbit  ever  exhibited  at  a prize  show.”  In  a 
common  wild  rabbit  I found  that  the  length  of  two  ears, 
from  tip  to  tip,  was  7f  inches,  and  the  breadth  only  1|^  inch. 
The  weight  of  body  in  the  larger  rabbits,  and  the  development 
of  their  ears,  are  the  qualities  which  win  prizes,  and  have 
been  carefully  selected. 

The  hare-coloured,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Belgian 
rabbit,  differs  in  nothing  except  colour  from  the  other  large 
breeds ; but  Mr.  J.  Young,  of  Southampton,  a great  breeder  of 
this  kind,  informs  me  that  the  females,  in  all  the  specimens 
examined  by  him,  had  only  six  mammae ; and  this  certainly 
was  the  case  with  two  females  which  came  into  my  pos- 
session. Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  however,  assures  me  that  the 
number  is  variable  with  other  domestic  rabbits.  The  common 
wild  rabbit  always  has  ten  mammae.  TJie  Angora  rabbit  is 
remarkable  from  the  length  and  fineness  of  its  fur,  which 
even  on  the  soles  of  the  feet  is  of  considerable  length.  This 
breed  is  the  only  one  which  differs  in  its  mental  qualities, 
for  it  is  said  to  be  m nch  more  sociable  than  other  rabbits,  and 


8 The  skulls  of  these  breeds  are  Horticulture,’  May  7th,  18G1,  p.  108. 
briefly  described  in  the  ‘ Journal  of 


CiiAr.  I^. 


THEIE  VAEIATION. 


Ill 


the  male  shows  no  wish  to  destroy  its  yonng.^  Tvro  live 
rabbits  were  brought  to  me  from  Moscow,  of  about  the  size  of 
the  wild  species,  but  with  long  soft  fur,  different  from  that 
of  the  Angora.  These  Moscow  rabbits  had  pink  eyes  and 
were  snow-white,  excepting  the  ears,  two  spots  near  the  nose, 
the  upper  and  under  surface  of  the  tail,  and  the  hinder  tarsi, 
which  were  blackish-brown.  In  short,  they  were  coloured 
nearly  like  the  so-called  Himalayan  rabbits,  presently  to  be 
described,  and  differed  from  them  only  in  the  character  of 
their  fur.  There  are  two  other  breeds  which  come  true  to 
colour,  but  differ  in  no  other  respect,  namely  silver-greys  and 
chinchillas.  Lastly,  the  Nicard  or  Dutch  rabbit  may  be 
mentioned,  which  varies  in  colour,  and  is  remarkable  from 
its  small  size,  some  specimens  weighing  only  1^  lb. ; rabbits 
of  this  breed  make  excellent  nurses  for  other  and  more 
delicate  kinds.^® 

Certain  characters  are  remarkably  fluctuating,  or  are  very 
feebly  transmitted  by  domestic  rabbits  : thus,  one  breeder 
tells  me  that  with  the  smaller  kinds  he  has  hardly  ever 
raised  a whole  litter  of  the  same  colour : with  the  large  lop- 
eared  breeds  “ it  is  impossible,”  says  a great  judge,^^  “ to  breed 
true  to  colour,  but  by  judicious  crossing  a great  deal  may  be 
done  towards  it.  The  fancier  should  know  how  his  does  are 
bred,  that  is,  the  colour  of  their  parents.”  Nevertheless, 
certain  colours,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  are  transmitted 
truly.  The  dewlap  is  not  strictly  inherited.  Lop-eared 
rabbits,  with  their  ears  hanging  down  flat  on  each  side  of 
the  face,  do  not  transmit  this  character  at  all  truly.  Mr. 
Delamer  remarks  that,  “ with  fancy  rabbits,  when  both  the 
parents  are  perfectly  formed,  have  model  ears,  and  are 
handsomely  marked,  their  progeny  do  not  invariably  turn 
out  the  same.”  When  one  parent,  or  even  both,  are  oar- 
laps,  that  is,  have  their  ears  sticking  out  at  right  angles, 
or  w'hen  one  parent  or  both  are  half-lops,  that  is,  have  only 

® ‘Journal  of  Horticulture,^  1861,  p.  827.  With  respect  to  the  ears,  see 
p.  380.  Delamer  on  ‘ Pigeons  and  Eabbits,’ 

‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’  May  1854,  p.  141;  also  ‘ Poultry  Chroni- 
28th,  1861,  p.  169.  cle,’  vol.  ii.  p.  499,  and  ditto  for  1854; 

‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  1861,  p.  586. 


112 


DOMESTIC  IfABBITS  : 


Chap,  IV. 


one  ear  dependent,  there  is  nearly  as  good  a chance  of  the 
progeny  having  both  ears  full-lop,  as  if  both  parents  had 
been  thus  characterized.  But  I am  informed,  if  both  parents 
have  upright  ears,  there  is  hardly  a chance  of  a full-lop.  In 
some  half- lops  the  ear  that  hangs  down  is  broader  and  longer 
than  the  upright  ear;^^  so  that  we  have  the  unusual  case  of 
a want  of  symmetry  on  the  two  sides.  This  difference  in  the 
position  and  size  of  the  two  ears  probably  indicates  that  the 
lopping  results  from  the  great  length  and  weight  of  the  ear, 


Fig  5.— Half-lop  Rabbit.  (Copied  from  E.  S.  Delamer’d  work.) 


favoured  no  doubt  by  the  weakness  of  the  muscles  consequent 
on  disuse.  Anderson  mentions  a bieed  having  only  a 
single  ear ; and  Professor  Gervais  another  breed  destitute  of 
ears. 

We  come  now  to  the  Himalayan  breed,  which  is  sometimes 
called  Chinese,  Polish,  or  Eussian.  These  pretty  rabbits  are 
white,  or  occasionally  yellow,  excepting  their  ears,  nose, 
feet,  and  the  upper  side  of  the  tail,  which  are  all  brownish- 
black  ; but  as  they  have  red  eyes,  they  may  be  considered  as 

Delamer,  ‘ Pigeons  and  Rabbits,  ‘An  Account  of  the  different 

p.  136.  See  also  ‘Journal  of  Horti-  Kinds  of  Sheep  in  the  Russian  Domi- 
culture,’  1831,  p.  375.  nions,’  1794,  p.  39. 


Chap.  IY. 


THE  HIMALzVYAN  BREED. 


113 


albinoes.  I have  received  several  accounts  of  their  breeding 
perfectly  true.  From  their  symmetrical  marks,  they  were 
at  first  ranked  as  specifically  distinct,  and  were  provisionally 
named  L.  nigripes}"^  Some  good  observers  thought  that  they 
could  detect  a difference  in  their  habits,  and  stoutly  maintained 
that  they  formed  a new  species.  The  origin  of  this  breed  is 
so  curious,  both  in  itself  and  as  throwing  some  light  on  the 
complex  laws  of  inheritance  that  it  is  worth  giving  in  detail. 
But  it  is  first  necessary  briefly  to  describe  two  other  breeds ; 
silver-greys  or  silver-sprigs  generally  have  black  heads  and 
legs,  and  their  fine  grey  fur  is  interspersed  with  numerous 
black  and  white  long  hairs.  They  breed  perfectly  true,  and 
have  long  been  kept  in  warrens.  When  they  escape  and 
cross  with  common  rabbits,  the  product,  as  I hear  from  Mr. 
Wyrley  Birch,  of  Wretham  Hall,  is  not  a mixture  of  the  two 
colours,  but  about  half  take  after  the  one  parent,  and  tho 
other  half  after  the  other  parent.  Secondly,  chinchillas  or 
tame  silver-greys  (I  will  use  the  former  name)  have  short, 
paler,  mouse  or  slate-coloured  fur,  interspersed  with  long, 
blackish,  slate-coloured,  and  white  hairs.^^  These  rabbits 
breed  perfectly  true.  A writer  stated  in  1857^®  that  he  had 
produced  Himalayan  rabbits  in  the  following  manner.  He 
had  a breed  of  chinchillas  which  had  been  crossed  with  the 
common  black  rabbit,  and  their  offspring  were  either  blacks 
or  chinchillas.  These  latter  were  again  crossed  with  other 
chinchillas  (which  had  also  been  crossed  with  silver-greys), 
and  from  this  complicated  cross  Himalayan  rabbits  were 
raised.  From  these  and  other  similar  statements,  Mr. 
Bartlett  was  led  to  make  a careful  trial  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  and  he  found  that  by  simply  crossing  silver-greys 
with  chinchillas  he  could  always  produce  some  few  Hima- 
la}^ans ; and  the  latter,  notwithstanding  their  sudden  origin, 
if  kept  separate,  bred  perfectly  true.  But  I have  recently 
been  assured  the  pure  silver-greys  of  any  sub-breed  occasion 
ally  produce  Himalayans. 

‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  June  23rd.,  ‘ Cottage  Gardener,’  1857,  p.  141 

1857,  p.  159.  Mr.  Bartlett,  in  ‘Proc.  Zoolog 

‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’ April  Soc.’  1861,  p.  40. 

^th,  1861,  p.  35. 


9 


Ill 


DOMESTIC  EABBTTS  : 


Chaf  IV, 


U’he  Himalayans,  when  first  born,  are  quite  white,  and  are 
then  true  albinoes ; but  in  the  course  of  a few  months  they 
gradually  assume  their  dark  ears,  nose,  feet,  and  tail.  Occ\- 
sionally,  however,  as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Wooler 
and  the  Eev.  W.  D.  Fox,  the  young  are  born  of  a very  pale 
gre}^  colour,  and  specimens  of  such  fur  were  sen!  me  by  the 
former  gentleman.  The  grey  tint,  however,  disappears  as 
the  animal  comes  to  maturity.  So  that  with  these  liima- 
layaiis  there  is  a tendency,  strictly  confined  to  earl}^  youth, 
to  revert  to  the  colour  of  the  adult  silver-grey  parent-stock. 
Silver-greys  and  cliincliillas,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a re- 
markable contrast  with  the  Himalayans  in  their  colour  whilst 
quite  young,  for  they  are  born  perfectly  black,  but  soon  assume 
their  characteristic  grey  or  silver  tints.  The  same  thing  occurs 
with  gre}"  horses,  which,  as  long  as  they  are  foals  are  generally 
of  a nearly  black  colour,  but  soon  become  grey,  and  get  whiter 
and  whiter  as  they  grow  older.  Hence  the  usual  rule  is  that 
Himalayans  are  born  white  and  afterwards  become  in  certain 
parts  of  their  bodies  dark-coloured  • whilst  silver-greys  are 
born  black  and  afterwards  become  sprinkled  with  white. 
Exceptions,  however,  and  of  a directly  opposite  nature, 
occasionally  occur  in  both  cases.  For  young  silver-greys 
are  sometimes  born  in  warrens,  as  I hear  from  Mr.  W.  Birch, 
of  a cream- col  our,  but  these  young  animals  ultimately  become 
black.  The  Himalayans,  on  the  other  hand,  sometimes  produce, 
as  is  stated  by  an  experienced  amateur,^*  a single  black  young 
one  in  a litter ; and  this,  before  two  months  elapse,  becomes 
perfectly  white. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  curious  case : wild  silver-grej^s  may 
be  considered  as  black  rabbits  which  become  grey  at  an  early 
period  of  life.  When  they  are  crossed  with  common  rabbits, 
the  offspring  are  said  not  to  have  blended  colours,  but  to  take 
after  either  parent ; and  in  this  respect  they  resemble  black 
and  albino  vaiueties  of  most  quadrupeds,  which  often  transmit 
their  colours  in  this  same  manner.  When  they  are  crossed 
with  chinchillas,  that  is,  with  a paler  sub-variety,  the  young 
are  at  first  pure  albinoes,  but  soon  become  dark-coloured  in 

**  ‘Phenomenon  in  Himalayan  Rabbits,’  in  ‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Jmu 
27th,  IHtio,  p.  102 


Chat.  IV. 


THE  HIMALAYAN  BKEED. 


115 


certain  parts  of  tlieir  "bodies,  and  are  tlien  called  Himalayans. 
The  young  Himalayans,  however,  are  sometimes  at  first 
either  pale  grey  or  com|)letely  black,  in  either  case  changing 
after  a time  to  white.  In  a future  chapter  I shall  advance 
a large  body  of  facts  showing  that,  when  two  varieties  are 
crossed  both  of  which  differ  in  colour  from  their  parent-stock, 
there  is  a strong  tendency  in  the  young  to  T*evert  to'  the 
aboriginal  colour ; and  what'  is  very  remarkable,  this  reversion 
.occasionally  supervenes,  not  before  birth,  but  during  the 
growth  of  the  animal.  Hence,  if  it  could  be  shown  that 
silver-greys  and  chinchillas  were  the  offspring  of  a cross 
between  a black  and  albino  variety  with  the  colours  intimately 
blended — a supposition  in  itself  not  improbable,  and  supported 
by  the  circumstance  of  silver-greys  in  warrens  sometimes  pro- 
ducing creamy- white  young,  which  ultimately  become  black — 
then  all  the  above  given  paradoxical  facts  on  the  changes  of 
colour  in  silver-greys  and  in  their  descendants  the  Himalayans 
V ould  come  under  the  law  of  reversion,  supervening  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  growth  and  in  diff'erent  degrees,  either  to  tlie 
original  black  or  to  the  original  albino  parent- variety. 

It  is,  also,  remarkable  that  Himalayans,  though  produced 
so  suddenly,  breed  true.  But  as,  whilst  young,  they  are 
albinoes,  the  case  falls  under  a very  general  rule;  albinism 
being  well  known  to  be  strongly  inheiited,  for  instance  with 
white  mice  and  many  other  quadrupeds,  and  even  white 
flowers.  But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  do  the  ears,  tail,  nose, 
and  feet,  and  no  other  part  of  the  body,  revert  to  a black 
colour  ? This  apparently  depends  on  a law,  which  generally 
holds  good,  namely,  that  characters  common  to  many  species 
of  a genus — and  this,  in  fact,  implies  long  inheritance  from 
the  ancient  progenitor  of  the  genus — are  found  to  resist 
variation,  or  to  reappear  if  lost,  more  persistently  than  the 
characters  which  are  confined  to  the  separate  species.  Now, 
in  the  genus  Lepus,  a large  majority  of  the  species  have  their 
ears  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  tinted  black  ; but  the 
persistence  of  these  marks  is  best  seen  in  those  species  which 
in  winter  become  white  : thus,  in  Scotland  the  L.  variahilis 

G.  IL  W'al^rhvyase,  ‘ Natural  History  of  IMammalia  : Rodents/  18  t6,  pp.  52j 

60,  too. 


U6 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS. 


ClIAl'  IV. 


in  its  winter  dress  has  a shade  of  colour  on  its  nose,  and  the 
tips  of  its  ears  are  black  : in  the  L.  tibetanus  the  ears  are 
black,  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  greyish-black,  and  the 
soles  (‘f  the  feet  brown  : in  L.  glacialis  the  winter  fur  is  pure 
white,  except  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  points  of  the  ears. 
Even  in  the  variously- coloured  fancy  rabbits  we  may  often 
observe  a tendency  in  tliese  same  parts  to  be  more  darkly 
tinted  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  Thus  the  several  coloured 
marks  on  the  Himalayan  rabbits,  as  they  grow  old,  are 
rendered  intelligible.  I may  add  a nearly  analogous  case : 
fancy  rabbits  very  often  have  a white  star  on  their  foreheads  ; 
and  the  common  English  hare,  whilst  young,  generally  has, 
as  I have  myself  observed,  a similar  white  star  on  its 
forehead. 

When  variously  coloured  rabbits  are  set  free  in  Europe,  and 
are  thus  placed  under  their  natural  conditions,  they  generall}” 
revert  to  the  aboriginal  grey  colour ; this  may  be  in  part  due 
to  the  tendency  in  all  crossed  animals,  as  lately  observed,  to 
revert  to  their  primordial  state.  But  this  tendency  does  not 
always  prevail ; thus  silver-grey  rabbits  are  kept  in  warrens, 
and  remain  true  though  living  almost  in  a state  of  nature  ; 
but  a warren  must  not  be  stocked  with  both  silver-greys  and 
common  rabbits ; otherwise  “ in  a few  years  there  will  be 
none  but  common  greys  surviving.”^®  When  rabbits  run 
wild  in  foreign  countries  under  new  conditions  of  life,  they 
by  no  means  always  revert  to  their  aboriginal  colour.  In 
Jamaica  the  feral  rabbits  are  described  as  having  been  “ slate- 
coloured,  deeply  tinted  with  sprinklings  of  white  on  the  neck, 
on  the  shoulders,  and  on  the  back;  softening oif  to  blue- white 
under  the  breast  and  belly.”  But  in  this  tropical  island 
the  conditions  were  not  favourable  to  their  increase,  and  they 
never  spread  widely,  and  are  now  extinct,  as  I hear  from  ]\Ir. 
It.  Hill,  owing  to  a great  fire  which  occurred  in  the  woods. 
Babbits  during  many  years  have  run  wild  in  the  Falkland 

Delamer  oa ‘Pigeons  and  Rabbits,’  have  become  feral  in  a hot  country, 
p.  1 14.  They  can  be  kept,  however,  at  Loanda 

Gosse’s  ‘Sojourn  in  Jamaica,’  (see  Livingstone’s  ‘Travels,’  p.  407). 

1851,  p.  441,  as  described  by  an  ex-  In  parts  of  India,  as  I am  informed  bj 

cellent  observer,  l\Ir.  R.  Hill.  This  is  Mr.  Blyth,  they  breed  ’rteii. 
the  only  known  case  in  which  rabbitii 


CiiAi  . rv. 


FERAL  RABBITS. 


117 


Islands  ; they  are  abundant  in  certain  parts,  but  do  not 
spread  extensively.  Most  of  them  are  of  the  common  grey 
colour  ; a few,  as  I am  informed  by  Admiral  Sulivan,  are 
hare-coloured,  and  many  are  black,  often  with  nearly  symme- 
trical white  marks  on  their  faces.  Hence,  M.  Lesson  described 
the  black  variety  as  a distinct  species,  under  the  name 
Lepus  magcUanicus,  but  this,  as  I have  elsewhere  shown,  is  an 
error.^^  Within  recent  times  the  sealers  have  stocked  some 
of  the  small  outlying  islets  in  the  Falkland  group  with 
rabbits ; and  on  Pebble  Islet,  as  I hear  from  Admiral  Sulivan, 
a large  proportion  are  hare-coloured,  whereas  on  Eabbit  Islet 
a large  proportion  are  of  a bluish  colour,  which  is  not  else- 
where seen.  Hov/  the  rabbits  were  coloured  which  were 
turned  out  of  these  islets  is  not  known. 

The  rabbits  which  have  become  feral  on  the  islaiid  of  Porto 
Santo,  near  Madeira,  deserve  a fuller  account.  In  1418  or 
1419,  J.  Gonzales  Zarco^^  happened  to  have  a female  rabbit 
on  board  which  had  produced  young  during  the  voyage,  and 
he  toned  them  all  out  on  the  island.  These  animals  soon 
increased  so  rapidly,  that  they  became  a nuisance,  and  actu- 
ally caused  the  abandonment  of  the  settlement.  Thirty- 
seven  years  subsecpiently,  Cada  Mosto  describes  them  as 
innumerable ; nor  is  this  supjising,  as  the  island  was  not 
inhabited  by  any  beast  of  prey  or  by  any  teiTestrial  mammal. 
A\'e  do  not  know  the  character  of  the  mother-rabbit ; but  it 
^^'as  probably  the  common  domesticated  kind.  lire  Spanish 
peninsula,  whence  Zarco  sailed,  is  known  to  have  abounded 
with  the  common  wild  species  at  the  most  remote  historical 
] eriod  ; and  as  these  rabbits  were  taken  on  board  for  food,  it 
is  improbable  that  they  should  have  been  of  any  peculiar 
breed.  That  the  breed  was  well  domesticated  is  shown  by 
the  doe  having  littered  during  the  voyage.  Mr.  Wollastoii, 
at  my  request,  brought  home  two  of  these  feral  rabbits  in 
spirits  of  wine;  and,  subsequently,  Mr.  W.  Hayw^ood  sent  to 

l>ar\vin’s  ‘ Jo’jrn;>]  of  Researches,-’  Lisbon  in  1717,  entitled  ‘ llihtdi'ia 
I>.  19.‘’> ; and  ‘ Zoology  of  the  Voyage  liisulana,’  written  by  a Jesuit,  the 
of  the  Beagle:  Maimnalia,’ }).  92.  rabbits  were  turned  out  In  14-20.  Some 

33  Kerr’s  ‘ Collection  of  Voyages,’  luthors  believe  that  the  island  wat 
vol.  ii.  [>.  177  : p.  2or>  fur  Ca^a  Mosto.  discovered  in  1413. 

A.xordiug  ..to  a .work  published  in 


118 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS. 


ClIAP.  IV. 


me  three  more  specimens  in  brine,  and  two  alive.  These 
seven  specimens,  though  caught  at  different  periods,  closely 
resembled  each  other.  They  were  full  grown,  as  shown  by 
the  state  of  their  bones.  Although  the  conditions  of  life  in 
Torto  Santo  are  evidently  highly  favourable  to  rabbits,  as 
proved  by  their  extraordinarily  rapid  increase,  yet  they  differ 
conspicuously  in  their  small  size  from  the  wild  English 
rabbit.  Four  English  rabbits,  measured  from  the  incisors  to 
the  anus,  varied  between  17  and  17|  inches  in  length;  whilst 
two  of  the  Porto  Santo  rabbits  were  only  14^  and  15  inches 
in  length.  But  the  decrease  in  size  is  best  shown  by  weight ; 
four  wild  English  rabbits  averaged  3 lb.  5 oz.,  whilst  one  of 
the  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  which  had  lived  for  four  years  in  the 
/-oological  Hardens,  but  had  become  thin,  weighed  only  1 lb. 
9 oz.  A fairer  test  is  afforded  by  the  comparison  of  the  well- 
cleaued  limb-bones  of  a Porto  Santo  rabbit  hilled  on  the  island 
with  the  same  bones  of  a wild  English  rabbit  of  average  size, 
and  they  differed  in  the  proportion  of  rather  less  than  fi  ve  to 
nine.  So  that  the  Porto  Santo  rabbits  have  decreased  nearly 
three  inches  in  length,  and  almost  half  in  weight  of  body.'-^^ 
The  head  has  not  decreased  in  length  proportionally  with  the 
body ; and  the  capacity  of  the  brain  case  is,  as  w^e  shall 
hereafter  see,  singularly  variable.  I prepared  four  skulls, 
and  these  resembled  each  other  more  closelj^  than  do  generally 
the  skulls  of  wild  English  rabbits  ; but  the  only  difference  in 
structure  which  they  presented  was  that  the  supra-orbital 
processes  of  the  frontal  bones  were  narrower. 

In  colour  the  Porto  Santo  rabbit  differs  considerably  from 
the  common  rabbit ; the  up23er  surface  is  redder,  and  is  rarely 
interspersed  with  any  black  or  black- tipped  hairs.  The 
throat  and  certain  parts  of  the  under  surface,  instead  of  being 
pure  white,  are  generally  pale  grey  or  leaden  colour.  But 
the  most  remarkable  difference  is  in  the  ears  and  tail ; I have 
examined  many  fresh  English  rabbits,  and  the  large  collection 

Something  of  the  same  kia  I has  coniiti-yman  tui-ued  out  some  rabbits 
uccarred  on  the  island  of  Lipari.  which  multiplied  prodigiously,  but, 
where,  according  to  Spallanzani  says  Spallanzjini,  “ les  lapins  do  I’ilo 
P Voyage  dans  les  deux  Siciles,’ quoted  de  Lipari  sont  plus  petits  que  ceui 
by  Godrou,  ‘ De  I’Espece,’  p.  3(54),  a qu’on  eleve  en  doinestioite.” 


Chap.  IV 


FERAL  RABBITS. 


119 


of  skins  in  the  British  Museum  from  various  countries,  and 
all  have  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  and  the  tips  of  the  ears 
clothed  with  blackish-grey  fur;  and  this  is  given  in  most 
works  as  one  of  the  specific  characters  of  the  rabbit.  Now 
in  the  seven  Porto  Santo  rabbits  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tail  was  reddish-brown,  and  the  tips  of  the  ears  had  no  trace 
of  the  black  edging.  But  here  we  meet  with  a singular 
circumstance  : in  June,  1861, 1 examined  two  of  these  rabbits 
recently  sent  to  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  their  tails  and 
ears  were  coloured  as  just  described;  but  when  one  of  their 
dead  bodies  was  sent  to  me  in  Februaiy,  1865,  the  ears  were 
plainly  edged,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  was  covered 
with  blackish-grey  fur,  and  the  whole  body  was  much  less 
red  ; so  that  under  the  English  climate  this  individual  rabbit 
liad  recovered  the  proper  colour  of  its  fur  in  rather  less  than 
four  years ! 

The  two  little  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  whilst  alive  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens,  had  a remarkably  different  appearance  from 
the  common  kind.  They  were  extraordinarily  wild  and  active, 
so  that  many  persons  exclaimed  on  seeing  them  that  they  were 
more  like  large  rats  than  rabbits.  They  were  nocturnal  to 
an  unusual  degree  in  their  habits,  and  their  wildness  was  never 
in  the  least  subdued ; so  that  the  superintendent,  Mr.  Bartlett, 
assured  me  that  he  had  never  had  a wilder  animal  under  his 
charge.  This  is  a singular  fact,  considering  that  they  are  de- 
scended from  a domesticated  breed.  I was  so  ihuch  surprised  at 
it,  that  I requested  Mr.  Haywood  to  make  inquiries  on  the  spot, 
wliether  they  were  much  hunted  by  the  inhabitants,  or  per- 
secuted by  hawks,  or  cats,  or  other  animals  ; but  this  is  not 
tlie  case,  and  no  cause  can  be  assigned  for  their  wildness. 
Tb.ey  live  both  on  the  central,  higher  rocky  land  and  neai 
the  sea-cliffs,  and,  from  being  exceedingly  shy  and  timid, 
seldom  appear  in  the  lower  and  cultivated  districts.  They 
are  said  to  produce  from  four  to  six  young  at  a birth,  and 
their  breeding  season  is-  in  July  and  August.  Lastly,  aiid 
this  is  a highly  remarkable  fact,  Mr.  Bartlett  could  never 
succeed  in  getting  these  two  rabbits,  which  were  both  males, 
to  associate  or  breed  with  the  females  of  several  breeds  which 
wore  repeatedly  placed  w'tli  tliem, 


120 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS  : 


Chai'.  IV. 


If  the  histor}^  of  these  Porto  Santo  rabbits  had  not  beer 
known,  most  naturalists,  on  observing  their  much  reduced 
size,  their  colour,  reddish  above  and  grey  beneath,  their  taiU 
and  ears  not  tipped  with  black,  would  have  ranked  them  as  a 
distinct  species.  They  would  have  been  strongly  confirmtd 
in  this  view  by  seeing  them  alive  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
and  hearing  that  they  refused  to  couple  with  other  rabbits. 
Yet  this  rabbit,  which  there  can  be  little  doubt  would  thus 
have  been  ranked  as  a distinct  species,  as  certainly  originated 
since  the  year  1420.  Finally,  from  the  three  cases  of  the 
rabbits  which  have  run  wild  in  I’orto  Santo,  Jamaica,  and 
the  Falkland  Islands,  we  see  that  these  animals  do  not,  under 
new  conditions  of  life,  revert  to  or  retain  their  aboriginal  cha- 
racter, as  is  so  generally  asserted  to  be  the  case  by  most 
authors. 

Osteologicat  Characters. 

When  we  remember,  on  the  one  hand,  how  frequently  it  is 
stated  that  important  parts  of  the  structure  never  vary  ; and, 
on  the  other  hand,  on  what  small  differences  in  the  skeleton 
fossil  species  have  often  been  founded,  the  variability  of  the 
skull  and  of  some  other  bones  in  the  domesticated  rabbit  well 
deserves  attention.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  more 
important  differences  immediately  to  be  described  strictly 
characterise  any  one  breed ; all  that  can  be  said  is,  that  they 
are  generally  present  in  certain  breeds.  We  should  bear  in 
mind  that  selection  has  not  been  applied  to  fix  any  character 
in  the  skeleton,  and  that  the  animals  have  not  had  to  support 
themselves  under  uniform  habits  of  life.  We  cannot  account 
for  most  of  the  differences  in  the  skeleton ; but  we  shall  see 
that  the  increased  size  of  the  body,  due  to  careful  nurture  and 
continued  selection,  has  affected  the  head  in  a particular 
manner.  Even  the  elongation  and  lopping  of  the  ears  have 
influenced  in  a small  degree  the  form  of  the  whole  skull. 
The  want  of  exercise  has  apparently  modified  the  propor- 
tional length  of  the  limbs  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
body. 

As  a standard  of  comparison,  1 ])repared  f-kelotons  of  two  wild 
rabbits  from  Kent,  one  from  the.  Slietland  islands,  and  one  from 


Chai-.  iV.  DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


121 


A.ntrim  in  Ireland.  As  all  the  bones  in  these  four  specimens  from 
such  distant  localities  closely  resembled  each  other,  presenting 
scarcely  any  appreciable  difference,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the 
bones  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  generally  uniform  in  character. 

Skull. — I have  carefully  examined  skulls  of  ten  lai'ge  lop-eared 
rabbits,  and  of  five  common  domestic  rabbits,  which  latter  differ  from 
the  lop-eared  only  in  not  having  such  large  bodies  or  ears,  yet  both 
larger  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  First  for  the  ten  lop-eared  rabbits  : 
in  all  these  the  skull  is  remarkably  elongated  in  comparison  with 
its  breadth.  In  a wild  rabbit  the  length  was  8'15  inches,  in  a large 
fancy  rabbit,  4-3 ; whilst  the  breadth  of  the  cranium  enclosing  the 
brain  was  in  both  almost  exactly  the  same.  Even  by  taking  as  the 
standard  of  comparison  the  widest  part  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  the 
skulls  of  the  lop-eared  are  proportionally  to  the.r  breadth  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  too  long.  The  depth  of  the  head  has  increased 
almost  in  the  same  proportion  with  the  length ; it  is  the  breadth 
alone  which  has  not  increased.  The  parietal  and  occipital  bones 
enclosing  the  brain  are  less  arched,  both  in  a longitudinal  and 
transverse  line,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  so  that  the  shape  of  the 
cranium  is  somewhat  different.  The  surface  is  rougher,  less  cleanly 
sculptured,  and  the  lines  of  sutures  are  more  prominent. 

Although  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  Jii  comparison 
with  those  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  much  elongated  relatively  to  their 
breadth,  j'^et,  relatively  to  the  size  of  body,  they  are  far  from  elon- 
gated. The  lop-eared  rabbits  which  I examined  were,  though  not 
fat,  more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  the  wild  specimens;  but  the  skull 
was  very  far  fi-om  being  twice  as  long.  Even  if  we  take  the  fairer 
standai’il  of  the  length  of  body,  from  the  nose  to  the  anus,  the  skull 
is  not  on  an  average  as  long  as  it  ought  to  be  by  a third  of  an  inch. 
In  the  small  feral  Porto  Santo  rabbit,  on  the  other  hand,  the  head 
relatively  to  the  length  of  body  is  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  too 
long. 

This  elongation  of  the  skull  relatively  to  its  breadth,  I find  a 
universal  character,  not  only  with  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  but 
in  all  the  artificial  breeds;  as  is  well  seen  in  the  skull  of  the  Angora. 
1 was  at  first  much  surprised  at  the  fact,  and  could  not  imagine  why 
domestication  could  produce  this  uniform  result;  but  the  explana- 
tion seems  to  lie  in  the  circumstance  that  during  a number  of  gene- 
rations the  artificial  races  have  been  closely  confined,  and  have  had 
little  occasion  to  exert  cither  their  senses,  or  intellect,  or  voluntary 
muscles;  consequently  the  brain,  as  we  shall  presently  more  fully 
see,  has  not  increased  relatively  with  the  size  of  body.  As  the  brain 
has  not  increased,  the  bony  case  enclosing  it  has  not  increased,  and 
this  has  evidently  affected  through  correlation  the  breadth  of  the 
entire  skull  from  end  to  end.  . 

In  all  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the  supra-orbital 
plates  or  processes  of  the  frontal  bones  are  much  broader  than  in 
the  wild  rabbit,  and  they  generally  project  more  upwards.  In  the 
zygomatic  arch  the  posterior  or  projecting  point  of  the  malar-bone 


122 


DOMESTIC  EABBITS: 


CHAr.  IV. 


is  broader  and  blunter;  and  in  the  specimen,  fig.  8,  it  is  so  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  This  point  approaches  nearer  to  the  auditory 
meatus  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  as  may  be  best  seen  in  fig.  8;  but 
this  circumstance  mainly  depends  on  the  changed  direction  of  the 


meatus.  The  inter-parietal  bone  (see  fig.  9)  differs  much  in  shape 
in  the  several  skulls;  generally  it  is  more  oval,  that  is  more  ex- 
tended in  the  line  of  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  skull,  than  in  the 
wild  rabbit.  The  posterior  margin  of  the  square  raised  plat- 


Char  IV. 


DIFFEEENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


123 


fcrm”^®  of  the  occiput,  instead  of  being  truncated,  or  projecting  slightly 
as  in  the  wild  rabbit,  is  in  most 
lop-cared  rabbits  pointed,  as  in 
tig.  9,  C.  The  parainastoids  rela- 
tively to  the  size  of  tlie  skull  are 
generally  much  thicker  than  in 
the  wild  rabbit. 

The  occipital  foramen  (fig.  10) 
presents  some  remarkable  differ- 
ences: in  the  wild  rabbit,  the 
lower  edge  between  the  condyles 
is  considerably  and  almost  angu- 
larly hollowed  out,  and  the  upper 
edge  is  deeply  and  squarely 
notched;  hence  the  longitudinal 
axis  exceeds  the  transverse  axis. 

In  the  skulls  of  the  lop-eared 
rabbits  the  transverse  axis  ex- 
ceeds the  longitudinal ; for  in 
none  of  these  skulls  was  the 
lower  edge  between  the  condyles 
so  deeply  hollowed  out ; in  five 
of  them  there  was  no  upper 
square  notch,  in  three  there  was  a trace  of  the  notch 
alone  it  was  well  developed. 

These  differences  in  the 
shape  of  the  foramen  are 
remarkable,  considering 
that  it  gives  passage  to  so 
important  a structure  as 
the  spinal  marrow,  though 
apparently  the  outline  of 
the  latter  is  not  affected 
by  the  shape  of  the  passage. 

In  all  the  skulls  of  the 
large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the 


Fig  8.— Part  of  Zygomatic  Arcli,  showing  the 
projecting  end  of  the  malar  hi  ne  of  the 
auditory  meatus:  of  natural  size.  Upper 
figure,  Wild  Rabbit,  l.ower  figure,  Lop- 
eared,  hare  coloured  Rabbit. 


and  in  two 


Fig,  9. — Posterior  end  of  skull,  of  natufal  size,  showing 
ihe  inter-parietal  bone.  A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B.  Feral 
Rabbit  from  island  of  P.  Santo,  near  Madeira. 
C.  Large  Lop-eared  Rabbit. 


bony  auditory  meatus  is  conspicuously  larger  than  in  the  wild 
rabhit.  Ina  skull  4’3  inches  a p. 

in  length,  and  which  barely 
exceeded  in  breadth  the 
skull  of  a wild  rabbit 
(which  was  3T5  inches  in 
length),  the  longer  diameter 
of  ihe  meatus  was  exactly 

twice  as  great.  The  orifice  Fig.  lo.-Occipitai  F.  ramen.  o''  namral  size,  in — 

is  more  , compressed,  and  a.  wild  Rabbit;  B.  Lai ge  Lop-eared  Rabbit. 

its  margin  on  the  side  nearest  the  skull  stands  up  higher  than 


Waterhouse,  ‘Nat.  Hist.  Mammalia,’ vol.  ii.  p.  36. 


.124 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS: 


CllAl',  IV. 


the  outer  side.  The  whole  meatus  is  directed  more  forMaids. 
As  in  breeding  lop-eared  rabbits  the  length  of  the  eais  and 
their  consequent  lopping  and  lying  flat  on  the  face,  are  the 
chief  points  of  excellence,  tijere  can  hardly  be  a doubt  that  the 

great  change  in  the  size, 
form,  and  direction  of  the 
bony  meatus,  ] datively  to 
this  same  part  in  the  wild 
rabbit,  is  due  to  the  con- 
tinued selection  of  indi- 
viduals having  larger  and 
larger  ears.  The  influence 
of  the  external  ear  on  the 
bony  meatus  is  well  shown 
in  the  skulls  (I  have  ex- 
amined three)  of  half-lops 
(see  fig.  5),  in  which  one  ear 
stands  upright,  and  the  other 
and  longer  ear  hangs  down; 
for  in  these  skulls  there  was 
a plain  ditference  in  the 
form  and  direction  of  the 
bony  meatus  on  the  two 
sides.  But  it  is  a much 
more  interesting  fact,  that 
the  changed  diiection  and 
increased  size  of  the  bony 
meatus  have  slightly  affected 
on  the  same  side  the  struc- 
ture of  the  whole  skull.  I 
here  give  a drawing  (fig.  11) 
of  the  skull  of  a half-lop  ; and 
it  may  be  observed  that  the 
suture  between  the  parietal 
and  frontal  bones  does  not 

run  strictly  at  right  angles 

to  the  longitudinal  axis  of 
the  skull,  the  left  frontal 
bone  projects  beyond  lie 
right  one;  boththeposterioi* 

Fig.  11.— Skull,  of  naluralsizp,  of  Half-lop  nabhit,  j QTitpHov  morPius  of  the 

showing  the  different  dirertion  of  the  auditory  anieilOl  maiglES  OI  inc 

meatus  on  th^  two  sMes,  and  the  consequint  left  ZygOmatic  ai’Ch  OH  the 
general  d-s'or.lon  of  the  skull  Tne  left  ear  of  lopping  ear  Stand 

the  iuiitiial  (or  right  side  of  figure)  lopped  t j i 

torwurds.  • ® ^ a little  m advance  of  tlic 

corrosjionding  bones  on  the 
opposite  side  Even  the  lower  jaw  is  affected,  and  the  condylts  aie 
not  quite  symmetrical,  that  on  the  left  standing  a little  in  advanee 
of  that  on  the  right.  This  seems  to  me  a remarkable  case  of 
coi relation  of  growth.  Who  would  have  surmised  that  by  keeping 


Chap.  IV. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


125 


an  animal  during  many  generations  under  confinement,  and  so 
leading  to  the  disuse  of  the  muscles  of  the  ears,  and  by  continually 
selecting  individuals  with  the  longest  and  largest  ears,  he  would 
thus  indirectly'  have  affected  almost  every  suture  in  the  skull  and 
the  form  of  the  lower  jaw ! 

In  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  the  only  difference  in  the  lower 
jaw,  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit,  is  that  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  ascending  ramus  is  broader  and  more  inflected.  The 
teeth  in  neither  jaw  present  any  difference,  except  that  the  small 
incisors,  beneath  the  large  ones,  are  proportionately  a little  longer. 
The  molar  teeth  have  increased  in  size  proportionately  with  the 
increased  width  of  the  skull,  measured  across  the  zygomatic  arch, 
and  not  proportionally  with  its  increased  length.  The  inner  line  of 
the  sockets  of  the  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  of  the  wild  rabbit 
forms  a perfectly  straight  line;  but  in  jorne  of  the  largest  skulls  of 
the  lop-eared  this  line  was  plainly  bowed  inwards.  In  one  specimen 
there  was  an  additional  molar  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw, 
between  the  molars  and  premolars ; but  these  two  teeth  did  not 
C(urespond  in  size ; and  as  no  rodent  has  seven  molars,  this  is 
merely  a monstrosity,  though  a curious  one. 

The  five  other  skulls  of  common  domestic  rabbits,  some  of  which 
approach  in  size  the  above-described  largest  skulls,  whilst  the 
others  exceed  but  little  those  of  the  wild  rabbit,  are  only  worth 
notice  as  presenting  a perfect  gradation  in  all  the  above-specified 
differences  between  the  skulls  of  the  largest  lop-eared  and  wild 
rabbits.  In  all,  however,  the  supra-orbital  plates  are  rather  larger, 
and  in  all  the  auditory  meatus  is  larger,  in  conformity  with  the 
increased  size  of  the  external  ears,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  The 
lower  notch  in  the  occipital  foramen  in  some  was  not  so  deep  as  in 
the  wild  rabbit,  but  in  all  five  skulls  the  upper  notch  was  well 
developed. 

The  skull  of  the  Jw (/ora  rabbit,  like  the  latter  five  skulls,  is  inter- 
mediate in  general  proportions,  and  in  most  other  characters,  between 
those  of  the  largest  lop-eared  and  wild  rabbits.  It  presents  only 
one  singular  character : though  considerably  longer  than  the  skull 
of  the  wild  rabbit,  the  breadth  measured  within  the  posterior  supra- 
orbital fissures  is  nearly  a third  less  than  in  the  wild.  The  skull-; 
of  the  silver-grey,  and  chinchilla  and  Himalayan  rabbits  are  more 
elongated  than  in  the  wild,  with  broader  supra-orbital  plates,  but 
differ  little  in  any  other  respect,  excepting  that  the  upper  and  lower 
notches  of  the  occipital  foramen  are  not  so  deep  or  so  well  developed 
'1  he  skull  of  the  Moscow  rabbit  scarcely  differs  at  all  from  that  of  the 
wild  rabbit.  In  the  Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits  the  supra-orbital  plates 
are  generally  narrower  and  more  pointed  than  in  our  wild  rabbits. 

As  some  of  the  largest  lop-eared  rabbits  of  which  I prepared 
skeletons  were  coloured  almost  like  hares,  and  as  these  latter  animals 
and  rabbits  have,  as  it  is  affirmed,  been  recently  crossed  in  Prance, 
it  might  be  thought  that  some  of  the  above-described  characters 
had  been  derived  from  a cross  at  a remote  period  with  the  hare. 


126 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS: 


Chap,  IY- 


Consequently  I examined  skulls  of  the  hare,  but  no  light  could  thus 
be  thrown  on  the  peculiarities  of  the  skulls  of  the  larger  rabbits. 
It  is,  however,  an  interesting  fact,  as  illustrating  the  law  that 
varieties  of  one  species  often  assume  the  characters  of  other  species 
of  the  same  genus,  that  I found,  on  comparing  the  skulls  of  ten 
species  of  hares  in  Die  British  Museum,  that  they  differed  from  each 
other  chiefly  in  the  very  same  points  in  which  domestic  rabbits 
vary, — namely,  in  general  proportions,  in  the  fortn  and  size  of  the 
subra-orbital  plates,  in  the  form  of  the  free  end  of  the  malar  bone, 
and  in  the  line  of  suture  separating  the  occipital  and  frontal  bones. 
Moreover  two  eminently  variable  characters  in  the  domestic  rabbit, 
namely,  the  outline  of  the  occipital  foramen  and  the  shape  of  the 
raised  platform  ’’  of  the  occiput,  were  likewise  variable  in  two 
instances  in  the  same  species  of  hare. 

Vertebrex. — The  number  is  uniform  in  all  the  skeletons  which  I 
have  examined,  with  two  exceptions,  namely,  in  one  of  the  small 
feral  Porto  Santo  rabbits  and  in  one  of  the  largest  lop-eared  kinds; 
both  of  these  had  as  usual  seven  cervical,  twelve  dorsal  with  ribs, 
but,  instead  of  seven  lumbar,  both  had  eight  lumbar  vertebrae. 
This  is  remarkable,  as  Gervais  gives  seven  as  the  number  for  the 
whole  genus  Lepus.  The  caudal  vertebrae  apparently  differ  by 
two  or  three,  but  I did  not  attend  to  them,  and  they  are  ditflcult  to 
count  with  certainty. 

In  the  first  cervical  v^ertebra,  or  atlas,  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
neural  arch  varies  a little  in  wild  specimens,  being  either  nearly 
smooth,  or  furnished  with  a small  supra-median  atlantoid  process; 

I have  figured  a specimen  with  the 
largest  proce.ss  {a)  which  I have  seen ; 
but  it  will  be  observed  how  inferior 
this  is  in  size  and  different  in  shape 
to  that  in  a large  lop-eared  rabbit. 
In  the  latter,  the  infra-median  pro- 
cess (6)  is  also  proportionally  much 
thicker  and  longer.  The  aim  are  a 
little  squarer  in  outline.  ' 

Third  cervical  v'^riebra. — In  the 
wild  rabbit  (fig.  18,  a a)  this  ver- 
tebra, viewed  on  the  inferior  surface, 
has  a transverse  process,  which  is 
directed  obliquely  backwards,  and 
consists  of  a single  pointed  bar ; in 
the  fourth  vertebra  this  process  is 
slightly  forked  in  the  middle.  In  the 
Fitr.  12.— Atlas  Vertebra,  of  naturni  size;  large  lop-eared  rabbits  this  pi’ocess 

Upper  figure.  Wild  Rabbit.  I .ower  (b  « ) IS  forked  m the  third  vertebra, 
figure.  Hare  coloured,  large,  Lop-cared  aS  in  the  fourth  of  the  wild  rabbit. 

But  the  third  cervical  vertebrae  of 
the  wild  and  lop-eared  (a  b,  b b) 
rabbits  differ  more  conspicuously  when  their  anterior  articular 


Rabbit,  a,  snpra-median,  atlantoid 
process ; b,  infra-median  process. 


Chap.  IV, 


DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


127 


surfaces  are  compared ; for  the  extremities  of  the  antero-dorsal  pro- 
cesses in  the  wild  nibbit  are  simply  rounded,  whilst  in  the  lop-eared 
they  are  trifid,  with  a deep 
central  pit.  The  canal 
for  the  spinal  marrow  in 
the  lop-eared  (b  6)  is  more 
elongated  in  a transverse 
direction  than  in  the  wild 
rabbit;  and  the  passages 
for  the  arteries  are  of  a 
slightly  different  shape. 

Th^ese  several  differences 
in  this  vertebra  seem  to 
me  well  deserving  atten- 
tion. 

First  dorsal  vertebra. — 

Its  neural  spine  varies  in 
length  in  the  wild  rabbit ; 
being  sometimes  very 
short,  but  generally  more 
than  half  as  long  as  that 
of  the  second  dorsal;  but  I have  seen  it  in  two  large  lop-eared 
rabbits  three-fourths  of  the  length  of  that  of  the  second  dorsal 
vertebra. 

Ninth  and  tenth  dorsrd  vertebrm. — In  the  wild  rabbit  the  neural 
spine  of  the  ninth  vertebra  is  just  perceptibly  thicker  than  that  of 
the  eighth ; and  the  neural  spine  of  the  tenth  is  plainly  thicker  and 
shorter  than  those  of  all  the  anterior  vertebrae.  In  the  large  lop- 
eared  rabbits  the  neural  spines  of  the  tenth,  ninth,  and  eighth  vertebrae, 
and  even  in  a slight  degree  that  of  the  seventh,  are  very  much 
thicker,  and  of  somewhat  different  shape,  in  comparison  with  those 
of  the  wild  rabbit.  So  that  this  part  of  the  vertebral  column  differs 
considerably  in  appearance  from  the  same  part  in  the  wild  rabbit, 
and  closely  resembles  in  an  interesting  manner  these  same  vertebrae 
in  some  species  of  hares.  In  the  Angora,  Chinchilla,  and  Hima- 
layan rabbits,  the  neural  spines  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  vertebrae 
are  in  a slight  degree  thicker  than  in  the  wild.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  one  of  the  feral  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  which  in  most  .of  its  cha- 
racters deviates  from  the  common  wild  rabbit,  in  a direction 
exactly  opposite  to  that  assumed  by  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the 
neural  spines  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  vertebrae  were  not  at  all  larger 
than  those  of  the  several  anterior  vertebrae.  In  this  same  Porto 
Santo  specimen  there  was  no  trace  in  the  ninth  vertebra  of  the 
anterior  lateral  processes  (see  woodcut  14),  which  are  plainly  deve- 
loped in  all  British  wild  rabbits,  and  still  more  plainly  developed 
in  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits.  In  a ’half-wild  rabbit  from  Sandon 
Park,-®  a haemal  spine  was  moderately  well  developed  on  the  under 


A B 


F p;.  13.— Third  Cervical  Vertebra?,  of  natural  size, 
of — A.  Wild  Rabbit;  B.  Hare-coloured,  large, 
Lop-eared  Babbit,  a,  a,  interior  surface;  b,  b, 
anterior  articular  surfaces. 


These  rabbits  have  run  wild  for  and  in  other  places  in  Staffordshire 

a considerable  time  in  Sandon  Park,  and  Shropshire.  They  originated,  as 


128 


DOMESTIC  rabbits: 


Chap  IV. 


side  of  the  twelfth  dorsal  vertebra,  and  I have  seen  this  in  no  other 
specimen. 


Vig.  14. — Dorsal  Vertebrae,  from  sixth  to  tenth  inclusive,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally. 
A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B.  Large,  Hare-coloun  d,  so  called  Spanish  Rabbit. 

Lumbar  Vertebrce. — I have  stated  that  in  two  cases  there  were 
eight  instead  of  seven  lumbar  vertebrae.  The 
third  lumbar  vertebrae  in  one  skeleton  of  a 
wild  British  rabbit,  and  in  one  of  the  Porto 
Santo  feral  rabbits,  had  a haemal  spine ; 
whilst  in  four  skeletons  of  large  lop-eared 
rabbits,  and  in  the  Himalayan  rabbit,  this 
same  vertebra  had  a well  developed  haemal 
spine. 

Felvis. — In  four  wild  specimens  this  bone 
was  almost  absolutely  identical  in  shape ; but 
in  several  domesticated  breeds  shades  of 
differences  could  be  distinguished.  In  the 
large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the  whole  upper  part 
of  the  ilium  is  straighter,  or  less  splayed  out- 
wards, than  in  the  wild  rabbit;  and  the 
tuberosity  on  the  inner  lip  oF  the  anterior 
and  upper  part  of  the  ilium  is  proportional iy 
more  prominent. 

Sternum. — The  posterior  end  of  the  pos- 
terior sternal  bone  in  the  wild  rabbit  (fig.  15, 
a)  is  thin  and  slightly  enlarged ; in  some  of 
the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  (b)  it  is  much  more  enlarged  towards 


ABC 


Fig.  15. — Terminal  hone  of 
Sternum,  of  natural  size. 
A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B.  Hiire- 
coloured,Lop-earf  d llabbit. 
C.  Hare-coloured  Spanish 
Rabbit.  (N.B,  The  left- 
hand  angle  of  the  upper 
articular  extremity  of  B 
rvns  broken,  and  has  been 
accidentally  thus  repre- 
sented.) 


I have  been  informed  by  the  game- 
keeper,  from  variously-coloured  do- 
mestic rabbits  which  had  been  turned 
cut.  They  vary  in  colour ; but 
many  are  symmetrically  coloured. 


being  white  with  a streak  along  the 
spine,  and  with  the  ears  and  certain 
marks  about  th’e  head  of  a blackish- 
grey  tint.  They  have  rather  longer 
bodies  than  common  rabbits. 


Chat.  IV, 


DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


129 


tlie  extremity;  whilst  in  other  specimens  (c)  it  keeps  nearly  of 
the  same  breadth  from  end  to  end,  but  is  much  thicker  at  the 
extremity. 

Scapula. — The  acromion  sends  out  a rectangular  bar,  ending  in  an 
oblique  knob,  which  latter  m the  wild  rabbit  (lig.  16,  a)  varies  a little 
in  shape  and  size,  as  does 
the  apex  of  the  acromion  in 
sharpness,  and  the  part  just 
below  the  rectangular  bar  in 
breadth.  But  the  variations 
in  these  respects  in  the  wild 
rabbit  are  very  slight : whilst 
in  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits 
they  are  considerable.  Thus 
in  some  specimens  (b)  the 
oblique  terminal  knob  is  de- 
veloped into  a short  bar, 
forming  an  obtuse  angle  with 
the  rectangular  bar.  In 
another  specimen  (c)  these 
two  unequal  bars  form  nearly 
a straight  line.  The  apex  of 
the  acromion  varies  much  in 
breadth  and  sharpness,  as 
may  be  seen  by  comparing 
figs.  B,  c,  and  d. 

Limbs. — In  these  I could 
detect  no  variation ; but  the 
bones  of  the  feet  were  too  troublesome  to  compare  with  much  care, 


Fig.  16. — Acromion  of  Scapula,  of  natural  size. 
A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B,  C,  D,  Large,  Lop-eared 
Rabbits. 


I have  now  described  all  the  differences  in  the  skeletons 
which  I have  observed.  1 1 is  impossible  not  to  be  struck  with 
the  high  degree  of  variability  or  plasticity  of  many  of  the 
bones.  We  see  how  erroneous  the  often-repeated  statement 
is,  that  only  the  crests  of  the  bones  which  give  attachment  to 
muscles  vary  in  shape,  and  that  only  parts  of  slight  Import- 
ance become  modified  under  domestication.  No  one  will  say,  for 
instance,  that  the  oc  ipital  foramen,  or  the  atlas,  or  the  third 
cervical  vertebra  is  a part  of  slight  importance.  If  the  several 
vertebra?  of  the  wild  and  lop-eared  rabbits,  of  which  figures 
have  been  given,  had  been  found  fossil,  palaeontologists  would 
have  declared  without  hesitation  that  they  had  belonged  to 
distinct  species. 


The  effects  of  the  use  and  disuse  of  parts. — Tn  the  large  lop-enred 
rabbits  the  relative  proportional  length  of  the  bones  of  the  same  leg, 
and  of  the  front  and  hind  legs  compared  with  each  other,  have 
10 


130 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS  : 


Chap.  IV. 


romainod  nearly  tlie  same  as  in  the  wild  rabbit ; but  in  weight,  the 
bones  of  the  hind  legs  apparently  have  not  increased  in  due  pro- 
])ortion  with  the  front  legs.  The  weight  of  the  whole  body  in  the 
large  rabbits  examined  by  me  was  from  twice  to  twice  and  a half  as 
great  as  tliat  of  the  wild  rabbit ; and  the  weight  of  the  bones  of  the 
front  and  hind  limbs  taken  togetlier  (excluding  the  feet,  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  cleaning  so  many  small  bones)  has  increased  in 
the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  in  nearly  the  same  proportion;  con- 
sequently in  due  proportion  to  the  weight  of  body  which  they  have 
to  support.  If  we  take  the  length  of  the  body  as  the  standard  of 
comparison,  the  limbs  of  the  large  rabbits  have  not  increased  in 
length  in  due  proportion  by  one  inch  and  a half.  Again,  if  we  take 
as  the  standard  of  comparison  the  length  of  the  skull,^which,  as  we 
have  before  seen,  has  not  increased  in  length  in  due  proportion  to 
the  length  of  body,  the  limbs  will  be  found  to  be,  proportionally 
with  those  of  the  wild  rabbit,  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
too  short.  Hence,  whatever  standard  of  comparison  be  taken,  the 
limb-bones  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  have  not  increased  in 
length,  though  they  have  in  weight,  in  full  proportion  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  frame ; and  this,  I presume,  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  inactive  life  which  during  many  generations  they  have  spent. 
Nor  has  the  scapula  increased  in  length  in  due  proportion  to  the 
increased  length  of  the  body. 

The  capacity  of  the  osseous  case  of  the  brain  is  a more  interesting 
point,  to  which  I was  led  to  attend  by  finding,  as  previously  stated, 
that  with  all  domesticated  rabbits  the  length  of  the  skull  relatively 
to  its  breadth  has  greatly  increased  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
wild  rabbits.  If  we  had  possessed  a large  number  of  domesticated 
rabbits  of  nearly  the  same  size  with  the  wild  rabbits,  it  would  have 
been  a simple  task  to  have  measured  and  compared  the  capacities 
of  their  skulls.  But  this  is  not  the  case : almost  all  the  domestic 
breeds  have  larger  bodies  than  wild  rabbits,  and  the  lop-eared  kinds 
are  more  than  double  their  weight.  As  a small  animal  has  to  exert 
its  senses,  intellect,  and  instincts  equally  with  a large  animal,  w^e 
ought  not  by  any  means  to  expect  an  animal  twice  or  thrice  as  large 
as  another  to  have  a brain  of  double  or  treble  the  size.^^  Now, 
after  weighing  the  bodies  of  four  wild  rabbits,  and  of  four  large  but 
not  fattened  lop-eared  rabbits,  I find  tha,t  on  an  average  the  wild 
are  to  the  lop-eared  in  weight  as  1 to  2T7 ; in  average  length  of 
body  as  I to  ITI ; whilst  in  capacity  of  skull  they  are  as  I to  I'I5. 
Hence  we  see  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull,  and  consequently  the 
size  of  the  brain,  has  increased  but  little,  relatively  to  the  increased 
size  of  the  body ; and  this  fact  explains  the  narrowness  of  the  skull 
relatively  to  its  length  in  all  domestic  rabbits. 


See  Prof.  Owen’s  remarks  on  this 
subject  in  his  paper  on  the  ‘Zoological 
Significance  of  the  Bi-ain,  &c.,  of  Man, 
&c.,’  road  before  Brit-  Association 


1862  : with  respect  to  Birds,  se*i 
‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  Jun.  11th,  184B 

p.  8. 


Chap.  IV 


EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE. 


131 


In  the  upper  half  of  the  following  table  I have  given  the  measure- 
ments of  the  skull  of  ten  wild  rabbits;  and  in  the  lower  half,  of 
eleven  thoroughly  domesticated  kinds.  As  these  rabbits  differ  so 
greatly  in  size,  it  is  necessaiy  to  have  some  standard  by  which  to 
compare  the  capacities  of  their  skulls.  I have  selected  the  length 
of  skull  as  the  best  standard,  for  in  the  larger  rabbits  it  has  not,  as 
already  stated,  increased  in  length  so  much  as  the  body  ; but  as  the 
skull,  like  every  other  part,  varies  in  length,  neither  it  nor  any  other 
part  affords  a perfect  standard.  ^ 

In  the  first  column  of  figures  the  extreme  length  of  the  sliull  is 
given  in  inches  and  decimals.  I am  aware  that  these  measurements 
pretend  to  greater  accuracy  than  is  possible ; but  I have  found  it 
the  least  trouble  to  record  the  exact  length  which  the  compass  gave. 
The  second  and  third  columns  give  the  length  and  weight  of  body, 
whenever  these  observations  were  made.  The  fourth  column 
gives  the  capacity  of  the  skull  by  the  weight  of  small  shot  with 
which  the  skulls  were  filled  ; but  it  is  not  pretended  that  these 
weights  are  accurate  within  a few  grains.  In  the  fifth  column  the 
capacity  is  given  which  the  skull  ought  to  have  had  by  calculation, 
according  to  the  length  of  skull,  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  wild 
rabbit  No.  1 ; in  the  sixth  column  the  difference  between  the  actual 
and  calculated  capacities,  and  in  the  seventh  the  percentage  of 
increase  or  decrease,  are  given.  For  instance,  as  the  wild  rabbit 
No.  5 has  a shorter  and  lighter  body  than  the  wild  rabbit  No.  I,  we 
might  have  expected  that  its  skull  would  have  had  less  capacity; 
the  actual  capacity,  as  expressed  by  the  weight  of  shot,  is  875  grains, 
which  is  97  grains  less  than  that  of  the  first  rabbit.  But  comparing 
these  two  rabbits  by  the  length  of  their  skulls,  we  see  that  in  No.  I 
the  skull  is  3T5  inches  in  length,  and  in  No.  5 2’96  inches  in  length ; 
according  to  this  ratio,  the  brain  of  No.  5 ought  to  have  had  a 
capacity  of  913  grains  of  shot,  which  is  above  the  actual  capacity, 
but  only  by  38  grains.  Or,  to  put  the  case  in  another  way  (as  m 
column  vii),  the  braiu  of  this  small  rabbit.  No.  5,  for  every  100  grains 
of  weight  is  only  4 grains  too  light, — that  is,  it  ought,  according 
to  the  standard  rabbit  No.  1,  to  have  been  4 per  cent,  heavier.  I 
have  taken  the  rabbit  No.  1 as  the  standard  of  comparison  because, 
of  the  skulls  having  a full  average  length,  this  has  the  least  capacity; 
so  that  it  is  the  least  favourable  to  the  result  which  1 wish  to  show, 
namely,  that  the  brain  in  all  long- domesticated  rabbits  has  decreased 
in  size,  either  actually,  or  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  head  and 
I'ody,  in  comparison  with  the  brain  of  the  wild  rabbit.  Had  I taken 
the  Irish  rabbit.  No.  3,  as  the  standard,  the  following  results  would 
have  been  somewhat  more  striking. 

Turning  to  the  table  : the  first  four  wild  rabbits  have  skulls  of  the 
same  length,  and  these  differ  but  little  in  capacity.  The  Sandon 
rabbit  (No.  4)  is  interesting,  as,  though  now  wild,  it  is  known  to  be 
descended  from  a domesticated  breed,  as  is  still  shown  by  its  pecu- 
liar colouring  and  longer  body ; nevertheless  the  skull  has  recovered 
its  normal  length  and  full  capacity.  The  next  three  rabbits  are  wild, 


132 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS: 


Chap.  IV. 


but  of  small  sizo,  and  they  all  have  skulls  with  slightly  lessened 
capacities.  The  tliree  Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits  (Nos.  8 to  10)  offer 
a perplexing  case ; their  bodies  are  greatly  reduced  in  size,  as  in  a 
lesser  degree  are  their  skulls  in  length  and  in  actual  capacity,  in 
comparison  with  the  skulls  of  wild  English  rabbits.  But  when  we 
compare  the  capacities  of  the  skull  in  th^e  three  Porto  Santo  rabbits, 
we  observe  a surprising  difference,  which  does  not  stand  in  any 
relation  to  the  slight  difference  in  the  length  of  their  skulls,  nor, 
as  I believe,  to  any  difference  in  the  size  of  their  bodies ; but  I 
neglected  weighing  separately  their  bodies.  I can  hardly  suppose 
that  the  medullary  matter  of  the  brain  in  these  three  rabbits,  living 
under  similar  conditions,  can  differ  as  much  as  is  indicated  by  the 
proportional  difference  of  capacity  in  their  skulls;  nor  do  I know 
whether  it  is  possible  that  one  brain  may  contain  considerably  more 
fluid  than  another.  Hence  I can  throw  no  light  on  this  case. 

Looking  to  the  lower  half  of  the  Table,  which  gives  the  measure- 
inents  of  domesticated  rabbits,  we  see  that  in  all  the  capacity  of  the 
skull  is  less,  but  in  very  various  degrees,  than  might  have  been 
anticipated  according  to  the  length  of  their  skulls,  relatively  to  that 
of  the  wild  rabbit  No.  1.  In  line  22  the  average  measurements  of 
seven  large  lop-eared  I’abbits  are  given.  Now  the  question  arises, 
has  the  average  capacity  of  the  skull  in  these  seven  large  rabbits 
increased  as  much  as  might  have  been  expected  from  their  greatly 
increased  size  of  body.  We  may  endeavour  to  answer  this  question 
in  two  ways : in  the  upper  half  of  the  Table  we  have  measurements 
of  the  skulls  of  six  small  wild  rabbits  (Nos.  5 to  10),  and  we  find 
that  on  an  average  the  skulls  are  T8  of  an  inch  shorter,  and  in 
capacity  91  grains  less,  than  the  average  length  and  capacity  of 
the  three  first  wild  rabbits  on  the  list.  The  seven  large  lop-eared 
rabbits,  on  an  average,  have  skulls  4T1  inches  in  length,  and  118(3 
grains  in  capacity;  so  that  these  skulls  have  increased  in  length 
more  than  five  times  as  much  as  the  skulls  of  the  six  small  wild 
rabbits  have  decreased  in  length ; hence  we  might  have  expected 
that  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  would  have  increased 
in  capacity  five  times  as  much  as  the  skulls  of  the  six  small  rabbits 
have  decreased  in  capacity;  and  this  would  have  given  an  average 
increased  capacity  of  455  grains,  whilst  the  real  average  increase  is 
only  155  grains.  Again,  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  have  bodies  of 
nearly  the  same  weight  and  size  as  the  common  hare,  but  their 
heads  are  longer ; consequently,  if  the  lop-eared  rabbits  had  been 
wild,  it  might  have  been  expected  that  their  skulls  would  have  had 
nearly  the  same  capacity  as  that  of  the  skull  of  the  hare.  But  this 
is  far  from  being  the  case ; for  the  average  capacity  of  the  two  hare- 
skulls  (Nos.  23,  24)  is  so  much  larger  than  the  average  capacity  of 
the  seven  lop-eared  skulls,  that  the  latter  yrould  have  to  be  increased 
21  per  cent,  to  come  up  to  the  standard  of  the  hare.-^ 


***  This  standard  is  apparently  con-  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1861,  p.  86)  gives  210 
wdorably  too  low,  for  Dr.  Crisp  (‘ Proc.  grains  as  the  actual  weight  of  thr 


CiiAr.  IV. 


EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE. 


p p CO  p p w 
i-<  <?  d:  a 

^cis  ir/  ' 


133 


jij  ’^'05  M 3 

a2  S §L 

^ sr  3 


: b 
o 


cr  CD  S3  3 
3:'<!  d 5 g 
oo  o o 311 
haS  as 
O ^2  ^ S 

O a.'  CD  M,  C 

i-  ^ ^ 

• ^ (jO  V.  CD 

CD 'd  Qj 

CD  O -T  ^ 

• 2 § 3 

P-i  2 

■ t • 

. ^ . 2 . 

• S • rt-  • 


1>D  tObCtObOCOtOOOWOOCOg 


(X  ^ 

c £ S 


O Oi  O Oi  O O’ 


^ GO 
O O’ 


<I  ^ <1  CO  CO 

►P-  CO  O ’-'CO 


;>2.5  wS 

g 1 3 a'-a 


a ^ 2. 


0Dg:|o®f  „ 
r 3 3 1 CO’S  b 


t-*  — '—  hOtOO^OCOODOOCO 
COCObOCCOCCOiODCDCOCOD 
ODI—  ’+*LOOO-aCOOlCDl<ICOCO 


CO  00  <I  CO  CC  O CO  CO  CO  to  CO  P 
to  CO  Oi  CO  CO  t-1  ^1  CO  - I O’ 
00  cnODODOooocD’^tocO'toas 


. a ^ f 3 2. 


K)l— 'COCOtOtOMtO'— ‘OOO 
ODCC  — tOODCj’CJDODbOOO  0>CO 
OOi-'t-'CDCDlCDlC^CJ’ODOtOO 


or  CO  00  00  CO  CO  'O 
00  -q  ►-  O’  - 

1/3  O CO  CO  o o cc 


O Bg 

a 5 


^ ‘ <z  Cd 


I-I  I-I  to  !-•  to  h- CO  I-*  >-* 
COCDOOCOO’'—  — OCOODCC  — 
t4©<l’*»<ICOtO©H-iCOCO<l 


2,  S p S-  's  2 

cc'^  (D  c 2-  3? 

s.e.^  2 

O — • 5a  CD  15 

CO  S'.  2 p 15  3 

Sr  a 1 3 3 o 

• oi  & a,  to 


-q  © © to  CO  CO  rfi- 


3 3 
5-  S' 


W 3 § 2 o 3- 
^ 3 O (t  O (D 

2w3-m|w 

p ~ ' 

p 


^ <1 


a 

p 3 

s€:3 


r*  P O '■‘' 

S' S'- -^3 

ft  <5 

^ SL-O-jq 

s:?2  aS 


134 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS  : 


Chap.  IV 


I have  previously  remarked  that,  if  we  had  possessed  many 
domestic  rabbits  of  the  same  average  size  with  the  wild  rabbit,  it 
would  have  been  easy  to  compare  the  capacity  of  their  skulls.  Nov) 
the  J.Iimalayan,  Moscow,  and  Angora  rabbits  (Nos.  11,  12, 13  ot 
Table)  are  only  a little  larger  in  body  and  have  skulls  only  a little 
longer,  than  the  wild  animal,  and  we  see  that  the  actual  capacity  of 
their  skulls  is  less  than  in  the  wild  animal,  and  considerably  less  by 
calculation  (column  7),  according  to  the  difference  in  the  length  of 
their  skulls.  The  narrowness  of  the  brain-case  in  these  three  rabbits 
could  be  plainly  seen  and  proved  by  external  measurement.  The 
Chinchilla  rabbit  (No.  14)  is  a considerably  larger  animal  than  the 
wild  rabbit,  yet  the  capacity  of  its  skull  only  slightly  exceeds  that  of 
the  wild  rabbit.  The  Angora  rabbit,  No.  13,  otters  the  most  remark- 
able case ; this  animal  in  its  pure  white  colour  and  length  of  silky 
fur  bears  the  stamp  of  long  domesticity.  It  has  a considerably 
longer  head  and  body  than  the  wild  rabbit,  but  the  actual  capacity 
of  its  skull  is  less  than  that  of  even  the  little  wild  Porto  Santo 
rabbits.  By  the  standard  of  the  length  of  skull  the  capacity  (see 
column  7)  is  only  half  of  what  it  ought  to  have  been ! I kept  this 
individual  animal  alive,  and  it  was  not  unhealthy  nor  idiotic.  This 
case  of  the  Angora  rabbit  so  much  surprised  me,  that  I repeated  all 
the  measurements  and  found  them  correct.  I have  also  compared 
the  capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  Angora  with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit 
by  other  standards,  namely,  by  the  length  and  weight  of  the  body, 
and  by  the  weight  of  the  limb-bones ; but  by  all  these  standards 
the  brain  appears  to  be  much  too  small,  though  in  a less  degree  when 
the  standard  of  the  limb- bones  was  used  ; and  this  latter  circum- 
stance may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  limbs  of  this  anciently 
domesticated  breed  having  become  much  reduced  in  weight,  from  its 
long-continued  inactive  life.  Hence  I infer  that  in  the  Angora 
breed,  which  is  said  to  differ  from  other  breeds  in  being  quieter  and 
more  social,  the  capacity  of  the  skull  has  really  undergone  a remark- 
able amount  of  reduction. 

From  the  several  facts  above  given, — namely,  firstly,  that 
the  actual  capacity  of  the  skull  in  the  Himalayan,  Moscow, 
and  Angora  breeds,  is  less  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  though 
they  are  in  all  their  dimensions  rather  larger  animals ; 
secondly,  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  large  lop-eared 
rabbits  has  not  been  increased  in  nearly  the  same  ratio  as  the 
capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  smaller  Avild  rabbits  has  been 


brain  of  a hare  which  weighed  7 lbs., 
and  125  grains  as  the  weight  of  the 
brain  of  a rabbit  which  weighed  3 lbs. 
5 oz.,  that  is,  the  same  weight  as  the 
rabbit  No.  1 in  my  list.  Now  the 
contents  of  the  skull  of  rabbit  No.  1 


in  shot  IS  in  my  table  972  grams; 
and  according  to  Dr.  Crisp’s  ratio  of 
125  to  210,  the  skull  of  the  hare 
ought  to  have  contained  1632  grains 
of  shot,  instead  of  only  (in  the  largest 
ha.re  in  my  table)  1155  grains. 


CiiAr.  IV. 


EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE. 


185 


decreased  ; an  1 thirdly,  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull  in  these 
same  large  lop-eared  rabbits  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the 
hare,  an  animal  of  nearly  the  same  size, — I conclude,  not- 
withstanding the  remarkable  differences  in  capacity  in  the 
skulls  of  the  small  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  and  likewise  in  the 
large  lop-eared  kinds,  that  in  all  long-domesticated  rabbits  the 
brain  has  either  by  no  means  increased  in  due  proportion 
with  the  increased  length  of  the  head  and  increased  size  of  the 
body,  or  that  it  has  actually  decreased  in  size,  relatively  to  what 
would  have  occurred  had  these  animals  lived  in  a state  of 
nature.  When  we  remember  that  rabbits,  from  having  been 
domesticated  and  closely  confined  during  many  generations, 
cannot  have  exerted  their  intellect,  instincts,  senses,  and 
voluntary  movements,  either  in  escaping  from  various 
dangers  or  in  searching  for  food,  we  may  conclude  that  their 
brains  will  have  been  feebly  exercised,  and  consequently 
liave  suffered  in  development.  We  thus  see  that  the  most 
important  and  complicated  organ  in  the  whole  organisation 
is  subject  to  the  law  of  decrease  in  size  from  disuse. 

Finally,  let  us  sum  up  the  more  important  modifications 
which  domestic  rabbits  have  undergone,  together  with  their 
causes  as  far  as  we  can  obscurely  see  them.  By  the  supply  of 
abundant  and  nutritious  food,  together  with  little  exercise,  and 
by  the  continued  selection  of  the  heaviest  individuals,  the 
weight  of  the  larger  breeds  has  been  more  than  doubled. 
*The  bones  of  the  limbs  taken  together  have  increased  in 
weight,  in  due  proportion  with  the  increased  weight  of  body, 
but  the  hind  legs  have  increased  less  than  the  front  legs ; 
but  in  length  they  have  not  increased  in  due  proportion,  and 
this  may  have  been  caused  by  the  want  of  proper  exercise. 
With  the  increased  size  of  the  body  the  third  cervical  has  as- 
sumed characters  proper  to  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra ; and  the 
eighth  and  ninth  dorsal  vertebrsB  have  similarly  assumed  cha- 
racters proper  to  the  tenth  and  posterior  vertebras.  The  skull 
in  the  larger  breeds  has  increased  in  length,  but  not  in  due  pro- 
portion with  the  increased  length  of  body  ; the  brain  has  not 
duly  increased  in  dimensions,  or  lias  even  actually  decreased, 
and  consequently  the  bony  ease  for  the  brain  has  remained 
narrow,  and  by  correlation  has  affected  the  bones  of  the  face 


136 


DOMESTIC  RADI5ITS. 


Chap.  R, 


and  the  entire  length  of  the  skull.  The  skull  has  thus 
acquired  its  characteristic  narrowness.  From  unknown  causes 
the  supra-orbital  process  of  the  frontal  hon(>s  and  the  ■ free 
end  of  the  malar  bones  have  increased  in  breadth  ; and  in 
the  larger  breeds  the  occipital  foramen  is  generally  much 
less  deeply  notched  than  in  wild  rabbits.  Certain  parts  of 
the  scapula  and  the  terminal  sternal  bones  have  become 
highly  variable  in  shape.  The  ears  have  been  increased 
enormously  in  length  and  breadth  through  continued  selec- 
tion ; their  weight,  conjoined  probably  with  the  disuse  of 
their  muscles,  has  caused  them  to  lop  downwards ; and  this 
has  affected  the  position  and  form  of  the  bony  auditory 
meatus;  and  this  again,  by  correlation,  the  position  in  a 
flight  degree  of  almost  every  bone  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
skull,  and  even  the  position  of  the  condyles  of  the  lower 
jaw. 


Chap.  V. 


PIGEONS:  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


13Y 


CHAPTER  V. 

DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 

ENUMERATION  AND  DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL 
VARIABILITY — VARIATIONS  OF  A REMARKABLE  NATURE — OSTEOLOGICAL 
characters:  skull,  lower  jaw,  number  op  VERTEBRA — CORRELATION 
OF  GROWTH : TONGUE  WITH  BEAK ; EYELIDS  AND  NOSTRILS  WITH 
WATTLED  SKIN — NUMBER  OP  WING-FEATHERS,  AND  LENGTH  OP  WING — 

DOLOUR  AND  DOWN WEBBED  AND  FEATHERED  FEET — ON  THE  EFFECTS 

OF  DISUSE — LENGTH  OP  FEET  IN  CORRELATION  WITH  LENGTH  OP  BEAK 
— LENGTH  OP  STERNUM,  SCAPULA,  AND  FURCULUM — LENGTH  OF  WINGS — 
SUMMARY  ON  THE  POINTS  OF  DIFFERENCE  IN  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS. 

I HAVE  been  led  to  study  domestic  pigeons  with  particular 
care,  because  the  evidence  that  all  the  domestic  races  are 
descended  from  one  known  source  is  far  clearer  than  with  any 
other  anciently  domesticated  animal.  Secondly,  because  many 
treatises  in  several  languages,  some  of  them  old,  have  been 
written  on  the  pigeon,  so  that  we  are  enabled  to  trace  the 
history  of  several  breeds.  And  lastly,  because,  from  causes 
which  we  can  partly  understand,  the  amount  of  variation 
has  been  extraordinarily  great.  The  details  will  often  be 
tediously  minute  ; but  no  one  who  really  wants  to  understand 
the  progress  of  change  in  domestic  animals,  and  especially 
no  one  who  has  kept  pigeons  and  has  marked  the  great 
difference  between  the  breeds  and  the  trueness  with  whicli 
most  of  them  propagate  their  kind,  will  doubt  that  this 
minuteness  is  worth  while.  Notwithstanding  the  clear  evi- 
dence that  all  the  breeds  are  the  descendants  of  a single 
species,  I could  not  persuade  myself  until  some  years  had 
passed  that  the  whole  amount  of  difference  between  them,  had 
ari«eii  since  man  first  domesticated  the  wild  rock -pigeon. 

I have  kept  alive  all  the  most  distinct  breeds,  which  I could 
procure  in  England  or  from  the  Continent ; and  have  pre- 
pared skeletons  of  all.  I have  received  skins  from  Persia, 
and  a large  number  from  India  and  other  quarters  of  the 


138 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V. 


world.^  Since  m}'-  admission  into  two  of  the  London  pigeon- 
clubs,  I have  received  the  kindest  assistance  from  many  of  tho 
most  eminent  amateurs.^ 

The  races  of  the  Pigeon  which  can  be  distinguished,  and 
which  breed  true,  are  very  numerous.  MM.  Boitafd  and 
Corbie ^ describe  in  detail  122  kinds;  and  I could  add  several 
European  kinds  not  known  to  them.  In  India,  judging  from 
the  skins  sent  me,  there  are  man}!^  breeds  unknown  here ; and 
Sir  W.  Elliot  informs  me  tliat  a collection  imported  by  an 
Indian  merchant  into  Madras  from  Cairo  and  Constantinople 
included  several  kinds  unknown  in  India.  I have  no  doubt 
that  there  exist  considerabl}’’  above  150  kinds  which  breed 
true  and  have  been  separately  named.  But  of  these  the  far 
greater  number  differ  from  each  other  only  in  unimportant 
characters.  Such  differences  will  be  here  entirely  passed 
over,  and  I shall  confine  myself  to  the  more  important  points 
of  structure.  That  many  important  differences  exist  we 
shall  presentl}^  see.  I have  looked  through  the  magnificent 

and  gave  me  specimens.  I ha  I access 
to  Mr.  Wicking's  collection,  which 
contained  a greater  assortment  of 
kinds  than  could  anywhere  else  be 
seen  ; and  he  has  always  aided  me 
with  specimens  and  information  given 
in  the  freest  manner.  Mr.  Haynes 
and  Mr.  Corker  have  given  me  speci- 
mens of  their  magnificent  Carriers. 
To  Mr.  Harrison  Weir  1 am  likewise 
indebted.  .Nor  must  I by  any  means 
pass  over  the  assistance  received  from 
Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton, Mr.  Baker, Mr.  Evans, 
and  Mr.  J.  Baily,  jun.,  of  Mount- 
street — to  the  latter  gentleman  1 
have  been  indebted  for  some  valuable 
specimens.  To  all  these  gentlemen 
1 beg  permission  to  return  my  sincere 
and  cordial  thanks. 

® ‘ Les  Pigeons  de  Voli^re  et  de 
Colombier,’  Paris,  1824.  During  forty- 
five  years  the  sole  occupation  of  M. 
Corbie  was  the  care  of  the  pigeons 
belonging  to  the  Duchess  of  Berry. 
Bonizzi  has  described  a large  number 
of  coloured  varieties  in  Italy:  ‘Le 
variazioni  dei  colombi  Dumestici 
Padova,  1873. 


' The  Hon.  C.  Muri*ay  has  sent  me 
some  very  valuable  specimens  from 
Persia  ; and  H.M.  Consul,  Mr.  Keith 
Abbott,  has  given  me  information  on 
the  pigeons  of  the  same  country.  I 
am  deeply  indebted  to  Sir  Walter 
Elliot  for  an  immense  collection  of 
skins  from  Madras,  with  much  infor- 
mation regarding  them.  Mr,  Blyth 
has  freely  communicated  to  me  his 
stores  of  knowledge  on  this  and  all 
other  related  subjects.  The  Rajah 
Sir  James  Brooke  sent  me  specimens 
from  Borneo,  as  has  H.M.  Consul, 
Mr.  Swinhoe,  from  Amoy  in  China, 
and  Dr.  Daniel!  Irum  the  west  coast 
of  Africa. 

^ Ml’.  B,  P,  Brent,  well  known  for 
his  various  contributions  to  poultry 
liierature,  has  aided  me  in  every  way 
di.ring  several  years : so  has  Mr. 
Tcgetmeier,  with  unwearied  kindness. 
Thin  latter  gentleman,  who  is  well 
known  for  his  works  on  poultry,  and 
who  has  largely  bred  pigeons,  has 
looked  over  this  and  the  following 
chapters.  Mr.  Bult  formerly  showed 
me  his  unriv’alled  co-joction  of  Pouters, 


Chap.  Y. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


139 


collection  of  the  Colnmhidee  in  the  British  Museum,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a few  forms  (such  as  the  Didunculus, 
Calasnas,  Guura,  &c.),  I do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  some 
domestic  races  of  the  rock-pigeon  differ  fully  as  much  from 
each  other  in  external  characters  as  do  the  most  distinct 
natural  genera.  We  may  look  in  vain  through  the  288 
known  species  ^ for  a beak  so  small  and  conical  as  that  of  the 
short-faced  tumbler ; for  one  so  broad  and  short  as  tliat  of 
the  barb ; for  one  so  long,  straight,  and  narrow,  with  its 
enormous  wattles,  as  that  of  the  English  carrier ; for  an  ex- 
panded upraised  tail  like  that  of  the  fantail ; or  for  an  oeso- 
phagus like  that  of  the  pouter.  I do  not  for  a moment  pretend 
that  the  domestic  races  differ  from  each  other  in  their  whole 
organisation  as  much  as  the  more  distinct  natural  genera.  1 
refer  only  to  external  characters,  on  which,  however,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  most  genera  of  birds  have  been  founded. 
When,  in  a future  chapter,  we  discuss  the  principle  of  selection 
as  followed  by  man,  we  shall  clearly  see  why  the  differences 
between  the  domestic  races  are  almost  always  confined  to 
external,  or  at  least  to  externally  visible,  characters. 

OAving  to  the  amount  and  gradations  of  difference  between 
the  several  breeds,  I have  found  it  indispensable  in  the  follow- 
ing classification  to  rank  them  under  Groups,  Eaces,  and  Sub- 
races ; to  which  varieties  and  sub  - varieties,  all  strictly 
inheriting  their  proper  characters,  must  often  be  added. 
Even  with  the  individuals  of  the  same  sub-variety,  when 
long  kept  by  different  fanciers,  different  strains  can  sometimes 
be  recognised.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  if  well-charac- 
terized forms  of  the  several  races  had  been  found  wild,  all 
would  have  been  ranked  as  distinct  species,  and  several  of 
them  would  certainly  have  been,  placed  by  ornithologists  in 
distinct  genera.  A good  classification  of  the  various  domestic 
breeds  is  extremely  difficult,  owing  to  the  manner  in  which 
many  of  the  forms  graduate  into  each  other ; but  it  is  curious 
how  exactly  the  same  difficulties  are,  encountered,  and  the 
same  rules  have  to  be  followed,  as  in  the  classification  of  any 
natural  but  difficult  group  of  organic  beings.  An  “ artificial 

* ‘Coup  d’Oeil  sui  TOrure  des  Paris,  1855.  This  author  makes  288 
Pigeons,’  par  Prince  C.  L.  Bonaparte,  species,  ranked  under  85  genera. 


140 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


ClIAI’.  V 


classification  ” might  be  followed  which  would  present  fewer 
difficulties  than  a “ natural  classification  but  then  it  would 
interrupt  many  plain  affinities.  Extreme  forms  can  readily 
be  defined ; but  intermediate  and  troublesome  forms  often 
destroy  our  definitions.  Forms  which  maybe  called  “aber- 
rant ” must  sometimes  be  included  within  groups  to  which 
they  do  not  accurately  belong.  Characters  of  all  kinds  must 
be  used  ; but  as  with  birds  in  a state  of  nature,  those  afforded 
by  the  beak  are  the  best  and  most  readily  appreciated.  It 
is  not  possiifie  to  weigh  the  importance  of  all  the  characters 
which  have  to  be  used  so  as  to  make  the  groups  and  sub-groups 
of  equal  value.  Lastly,  a group  may  contain  only  one  race,  and 
another  and  less  distinctly  defined  group  may  contain  several 
races  and  sub-races,  and  in  this  case  it  is  difficult,  as  in  the 
classification  of  natural  species,  to  avoid  placing  too  high  a 
value  on  the  number  of  forms  which  a group  may  contain. 

In  my  measurements  I have  never  trusted  to  the  eye ; and 
when  speaking  of  a part  being  large  or  small,  I always  refer 
to  the  wild  rock-pigeon  (OoZww/fea  Zma)  as  the  standard  of 
comparison.  The  measurements  are  given  in  decimals  of  an 
inch.^ 

I will  now  give  a brief  description  of  all  the  principal 
breeds.  The  diagram  on  the  following  page  may  aid  the 
reader  in  learning  their  names  and  seeing  their  affinities. 
The  rock-pigeon,  or  Golumba  livia  (including  under  this  name 


® As  I so  often  refer  to  the  size  of  tween  the  measurements  of  two  wild 
the  C.  livia,  or  rock-pigeon,  it  may  birds,  kindly  sent  me  by  Dr.  Edmond- 
be  convenient  to  give  the  mean  be-  stone  from  the  Shetland  Islands. 


Inches. 

Length  from  feathered  base  of  beak  to  end  of  tail 14’2.5 

,,  „ „ „ to  oil-gland  9*5 

„ from  tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail 15*02 

„ of  tail-feathers  4*62 

„ from  tip  to  tip  of  wing  26*75 

„ of  folded  wing  9*25 

Deak. — Length  from  tip  of  beak  to  feathered  base *77 

„ Thickness,  measured  vertically  at  distal  end  of  nostrils  ..  ..  *23 

„ Breadth,  measured  at  same  place  *16 

Feet  — Length  horn  end  of  middle  toe  (without  claw)  to  distal  end  ofl  „ 

tibia 

„ Length  from  end  of  middle  toe  to  end  of  hind  toe  (without!  2.02 

claws) / 

^’’eight  14^  ounces. 


(JlIAP.  V- 


desckiption  of  breeds. 


141 


two  or  three  closely-aUied  sub-species  or  geographical  races, 


fig-  17. — The  Rock  Pigeon,  or  Columba  lfvia.6  The  parent-form  of  all  domesticated  Pigeons. 


® This  drawing  was  made  from  a by  Mr.  Tegetmeier.  It  may  be  con- 

dead  bird.  The  six  following  figures  fidently  asserted  that  the  characters 

were  drawn  with  great  care  by  Mr.  of  the  six  breeds  which  have  been 

Luke  Wells  from  living  birds  selected  figui’ed  are  not  in  the  least  exaggerated. 


COLUMBA  LIVIA  oii  ROCK-PIGEON. 


142 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS 


Chap.  V 
Dove  cot  pigeon. 
Swallow. 

Spot. 

Nun. 

English  Frill-hack 

Laugher. 

Trumpeter. 


2 a 


o a 

1-3  l=! 

H 


§ S 

'2  2 
O 3 

QH 


Vo 


2 « 
§ 8 

o 


o 

OQ 


o d 
. . « bo 


C 


2^  S 


;g  -2 
’"•cn  4 

da. 


C^IAP.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


143 


hereafter  to  be  described),  may  be  confidently  viewed,  as  we 
shall  see  in  tile  next  chapter,  as  the  common  parent-form. 
The  names  in  italics  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  page  show 
ns  the  most  distinct  breeds,  or  those  which  have  undergone 
the  greatest  amount  of  modification.  The  lengths  of  the 
dotted  lines  rudely  represent  the  degree  of  distinctness  of 
each  breed  from  the  parent -stock,  and  the  names  placed 
under  each  other  in  the  columns  show  the  more  or  less 
closely  connecting  links.  The  distances  of  the  dotted  lines 
from  each  other  approximately  represent  the  amount  of 
difference  between  the  several  bineds. 

Group  I. 

This  group  includes  a single  race,  that  of  the  Pouters.  If 
the  most  strongly  marked  sub-race  be  taken,  namely,  the 
Improved  English  Pouter,  this  is  perhaps  the  most  distinct 
of  ail  domesticated  pigeons. 

Rage  I. — Pouter  Pigeons.  (Kropftauben,  German.  Grosses- 
gorges,  or  boulans,  French.) 

CEsophagus  of  great  size,  barely  separated  from  the  crop,  often 
inflated.  Body  and  legs  elongated.  Beah  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions. 

Sub-race  1. — The  improved  English  Pouter,  when  its  crop  is  fully 
inflated,  presents  a truly  astonishing  appearance.  The  habit  of 
slightly  inflating  the  crop  is  common  to  all  domestic  pigeons,  but 
is  carried  to  an  extreme  in  the  Pouter.  The  crop  does  not  differ, 
except  in  size,  from  that  of  other  pigeons ; but  is  less  pMnly 
separated  by  an  oblique  constriction  from  the  oesophagus.  The 
diameter  of  the  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus  is  immense,  even  close 
up  to  the  head.  The  beak  in  one  bird  which  I possessed  was 
almost  completely  buried  when  the  oesophagus  was  fully  expanded. 
The  males,  especially  when  excited,  pout  more  than  the  females, 
and  they  glory  in  exercising  this  power.  If  a bird  will  not,  to  use 
the  technical  expression,  “ play,”  the  fancier,  as  I have  witnessed, 
by  taking  the  beak  into  his  mouth,  blows  him  up,  like  a balloon ; 
and  the  bird,  then  puffed  -up  with  wind  and  pride,  struts  about, 
retaining  his  magnificent  size  as  long  as  he  can.  Pouters  often 
take  flight  with  their  crops  inflated.  After  one  of  my  birds  had 
swallowed  a good  meal  of  peas  and  water,  as  he  flew  up  in  order  to 
disgorge  them  and  feed  his  nearly  fledged  young,  I heard  the  peas 
rattling  in  his  inflated  crop  as  if  in  a bladder.  When  flying,  they 


144 


DOMES  no  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  \'. 


often  strike  the  backs  of  their  wings  together,  and  thus  make  a 
clapping  noise. 

Pouters  stand  remarkably  upright,  and  their  bodies  are  thin  and 
elongated.  In  connexion  with  this  form  of  body,  the  ribs  aie 


Fig.  18. — English  Fouler. 


g-enerally  broader  and  the  vertebrse  more  numerous  than  in  other 
breeds.  From  their  manner  of  standing  their  legs  appear  longer 
than  they  really  are,  though,  in  proportion  with  those  of  G.  Uvia, 
the  legs  and  feet  are  actually  longer.  The  wings  appear  much 
elongated,  but  by  measurement,  in  relation  to  the  length  of  body, 


Chap.  V. 


DESGEIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


145 


this  is  not  the  case,  Tlie  beak  likewise  appears  longer,  but  it  is 
in  fact  a little  shorter  (about  -03  of  an  inch),  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  the  body,  and  relatively  to  the  beak  of  the  rock-pigeon. 
The  Pouter,  though  not  bulky,  is  a large  bird ; I measured  cue 
which  was  Sis  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing,  and  19  inches  frcm 
tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail.  In  a wild  rock-pigeon  from  the  ShetJaifd 
Islands  the  same  measurements  gave  only  28,t  and  14f.  There  are 
many  sub- varieties  of  the  Pouter  of  different  colours,  but  these  I 
pass  over. 

Sub-race  11.  Butch  Pouter. — This  seems  to  be  the  parent-form  of 
our  improved  English  Pouters.  I kept  a pair,  but  I suspect  that 
they  were  not  pure  birds.  They  are  smaller  than  English  pouters, 
and  less  well  developed  in  all  their  characters.  Neumeister^  says 
tliat  the  wings  are  crossed  over  the  tail,  and  do  not  reach  to  its 
extremity. 

Sub-race  III.  The  Lille  Pouter. — I know  this  breed  only  from 
description.®  It  approaches  in  general  form  the  Dutch  Pouter,  but 
the  inflated  oesophagus  assumes  a spherical  form,  as  if  the  pigeon 
had  swallowed  a large  orange,  which  had  stuck  close  under  the 
beak.  This  inflated  ball  is  represented  as  rising  to  a level  with  the 
crown  of  the  head.  The  middle  toe  alone  is  feathered.  A variety 
of  this  sub-race,  called  the  claquaut,  is  described  by  MM.  Boitard 
and  Corbie ; it  pouts  but  little,  and  is  characterised  by  the  habit 
of  violently  hitting  its  wings  together  over  its  back, — a habit  which 
the  English  Pouter  has  in  a slight  degree. 

Sub-race  IV.  Common  German  Pouter. — I know  this  bird  only 
from  the  flgures  and  description  given  by  the  accurate  Neumeister, 
one  of  the  few  writers  on  pigeons  who,  as  I have  found,  may  always 
be  trusted.  This  sub  race  seems  considerably  different.  The 
upper  part  of  the  oesophagus  is  much  less  distended.  The  bird 
stands  less  upright.  The  feet  are  not  feathered,  and  the  legs  and 
beak  are  shorter.  In  these  respects  there  is  an  approach  in  form 
to  the  common  rock-pigeon.  The  tail-feathers  are  very  long,  yet 
the  tips  of  the  closed  wings  extend  beyond  the  end  of  the  tail ; and 
the-  length  of  the  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  and  of  the  body,  is  greater 
than  in  the  English  Pouter. 


Group  II. 

This  group  includes  three  Eaces,  namely,  Cariiers,  Eunts, 
and  Barbs,  which  are  manifestly  allied  to  each  other.  I ndeed, 
certain  carriers  and  runts  pass  into  each  other  by  such  in- 
sensible gradations  that  an  arbitrary  line  has  to  be  diawn 
between  them.  Carriers  also  graduate  through  foreign  hi  eeda 
into  the  rock-pigeon.  Yet,  if  well-characterised  Carriers  and 


^ ‘Dns  Ganze  der  Tanbenzucht 
Weimar,  1837,  pL  11  and  12. 


* Boitard  and  Corbie,  ‘ Les  Pigeons, 
&c.,  p.  177,  pi.  6. 


146 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  V. 


Barbs  (see  figs.  19  and  20)  had  existed  as  wild  species,  no 
ornithologist  would  liave  placed  them  in  the  same  genus 
with  each  other  or  with  the  rock-pigeon.  Tliis  group  may, 
as  a general  rule,  be  recognised  by  the  beak  being  long,  with 
the  skin  over  the  nostrils  swollen  and  often  carunculated  or 
wattled,  and  with  that  round  the  eyes  bare  and  likewise 
carunculated.  The  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  the  feet  are 
large.  Nevertheless  the  Barb,  which  must  be  classed  in  this 
same  group,  has  a very  short  beak,  and  some  runts  have  very 
li  ttle  bare  skin  round  their  eyes. 


Eace  II. — Carriers.  (Tiirkische  Tauben ; pigeons  turcs, 
dragons.) 

Beak'  elongated,  narroio,  pointed;  eyes  surrounded  hy  much 
naked,  generally  carunculated,  skin ; neck  and  body  elongated. 

Sub-race  I.  The  English  Carrier. — This  is  a fine  bird,  of  large  sizej 
close  feathered,  generally  dark-coloured,  with  an  elongated  neck. 
The  beak  is  attenuated  and  of  wonderful  length:  in  one  specimen 
it  was  I‘4  inch  in  length  from  the  feathered  base  to  the  tip ; there- 
fore nearly  twice  as  long  as  that  of  the  rock- pigeon,  which  measured 
only  '77.  Whenever  I compare  proportionally  any  part  in  the 
carrier  and  rock-pigeon,  I take  the  length  of  the  body  from  the 
base  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  com- 
parison ; and  according  to  this  standard,  the  beak  in  one  Carrier 
was  nearly  half  an  inch  longer  than  in  the  rock- pigeon.  The  upper 
mandible  is  often  slightly  arched.  The  tongue  is  very  long.  The 
development  of  the  carunculated  skin  or  wattle  round  the  eyes, 
over  the  nostrils,  and  on  the  lower  mandible,  is  prodigious.  The 
eyelids,  measured  longitudinally,  were  in  some  specimens  exactly 
twice  as  long  as  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  external  orifice  or  furrow 
of  the  nostrils  was  also  twice  as  long.  The  open  mouth  in  its 
widest  part  was  in  one  case  75  of  an  inch  in  width,  whereas  in  the 
rock-pigeon  it  is  only  about  "I  of  an  inch.  This  great  width  of 
mouth  is  shown  in  the  skeleton  by  the  reflexed  edges  of  the  ramus 
of  the  lower  jaw.  The  head  is  flat  on  the  summit  and  narrow 
between  the  orbits.  The  feet  are  large  and  coarse ; the  length,  as 
measured  from  end  of  hind  toe  to  end  of  middle  toe  (without  the 
claws),  was  in  two  specimens  2‘6  inches,;  and  this,  proportionally 
with  the  rock-pigeon,  is  an  excess  of  nearly  a quarter  of  an  inch. 
One  very  fine  Carrier  measured  31 2 inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing. 
Birds  of  this  sub-race  are  too  valuable  to  be  flown  as  carriers. 

Sub-race  II.  Dragons ; Persian  Carriers. — The  English  Dragon 
differs  from  the  improved  English  Carrier  in  being  smaller  in  all 
its  dimensions,  and  in  having  less  wattle  round  the  eyes  and  ovei 


Chap.  V. 


DESCKIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


147 


the  nostrils,  and  none  on  the  lower  mandible.  Sir  W.  Elliot  sent 
me  from  Madras  a Bagdad  Carrier  (sometimes  called  khandesi)  the 
name  of  which  shows  its  Persian  origin:  it  would  be  considered 


hero  a TPrv  noor  Dragon ; the  body  was  ot  the  size  of  the  rock- 
pgorwdhTebe^^^  longer,  namely,!  inch  from  the  ip 

to  the  feathered  base.  The  skin  round  the  eyes  was  only  slightly 


148 


DOMES  TIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V 


wattled,  whilst  that  over  the  nostrils  was  fairly  wattled.  The  Hon. 
C Murray,  also,  sent  me  two  Carriers  direct  from  Persia;  these 
had  nearly  the  same  character  as  the  Madras  bird,  being  about  as 
large  as  tbe  rock-pigeon,  but  tbe  beak  in  one  specimen  was  as  much 
as  ITS  in  length ; the  skin  over  tbe  nostrils  was  only  moderately, 
and  that  round  tbe  eyes  scarcely  at  all  wattled. 

Sub-race  III.  Bagadotfen-Tauhen  of  Keumeister  (Pavdotten-  or 
TTocker-Taubeu). — I owe  to  tbe  kindness  of  Mr.  Baily,  jun.,  a dead 
specimen  of  this  singular  breed  imported  from  Germany.  It  is 
certaiuly  allied  to  theEunts;  nevertheless,  from  its  close  affinity 
with  Carriers,  it  will  be  convenient  here  to  describe  it.  Tbe  beak 
is  long,  and  is  booked  or  bowed  downwards  in  a highly  remarkable 
manner,  as  will  be  seen  in  tbe  woodcut  to  be  hereafter  given  when 
I treat  of  the  skeleton.  Tbe  eyes  are  surrounded  by  a wide  space 
of  bright  red  skin,  which,  as  well  as  that  over  the  nostrils,  is  mode- 
rately wattled.  The  breast-bone  is  remarkably  protuberant,  being 
abruptly  bowed  outwards.  The  feet  and  tarsi  are  of  great  length, 
larger  than  in  first-rate  English  Carriers.  The  whole  bird  is  of 
large  size,  but  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  the  feathers 
of  the  wing  and  tail  are  short ; a wild  rock-pigeon,  of  considerably 
less  size,  had  tail-feathers  4'6  inches  in  length,  whereas  in  the  large 
Bagadotten  these  feathers  were  scarcely  over  4T  inches  in  length. 
EiedeP  remarks  that  it  is  a very  silent  bird. 

Sub-race  J K Bussorah  Carrier. — Two  specimens  were  sent  me 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot  from  Madras,  one  in  spirits  and  the  other  skinned. 
The  name  shows  its  Persian  origin.  It  is  much  valued  in  India, 
and  is  considered  as  a distinct  breed  from  the  Bagdad  Carrier, 
which  forms  my  second  sub- race.  At  first  I suspected  that  these 
two  sub-races  might  have  been  recently  formed  by  crosses  with 
other  breeds,  tliough  the  estimation  in  which  they  are  held  renders 
this  improbable ; but  in  a Persian  treatise,^®  believed  to  have  been 
written  about  100  years  ago,  the  Bagdad  and  Bussorah  breeds 
are  described  as  distinct.  The  Bussorah  Carrier  is  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  The  shape  of  the  beak,  with 
some  little  carunculated  skin  over  the  nostrils, — the  much  elongated 
eyelids, — the  broad  mouth  measured  internally, — the  narrow  head, 
■ — the  feet  proportionally  a little  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon, — 
and  the  general  appearance,  all  show  that  this  bird  is  an  undoubted 
Carrier;  yet  in  one  specimen  the  beak  was  of  exactly  the  same 
length  as  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  the  other  specimen  the  beak  (as 
well  as  the  opening  of  the  nostrils)  was  only  a very  little  longer, 
viz.,  by  *08  of  an  inch.  Although  there  was  a considerable  space 
of  bare  and  slightly  carunculated  skin  round  the  eyes,  that  over 
the  nostrils  was  only  in  a slight  degree  rugose.  Sir  W.  Elliot 


* ‘ Di(  Taubenzucht,’ Ulm,  1824,  s.  in  1770:  I owe  to  the  great  kinduess 
42.  of  Sir  Elliot  a translation  of  thif 

This  treatise  was  written  by  curious  t.eatise. 

Saviid  Mohammed  Musari,  who  died 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


149 


informs  me  that  in  the  living  bird  the  eye  seems  remarkably  large 
and  prominent,  and  the  same  fact  is  noticed  in  the  Persian  treatise ; 
but  the  bony  orbit  is  barely  larger  than  that  in  the  rock-pigeon. 

Amongst  the  several  breeds  sent  to  me  from  Madras  by  Sir  W. 
Elliot  there  is  a pair  of  the  Kali  Par^  black  birds  with  the  beak 
slightly  elongated,  with  the  skin  over  the  nostrils  rather  full,  and 
with  a little  naked  skin  round  the  eyes.  This  breed  seems  more 
closely  allied  to  the  Carrier  than  to  any  other  breed,  being  nearly 
intermediate  between  the  Bussorah  Carrier  and  the  rock-pigeon. 

The  names  applied  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and  in  India  to 
the  several  kinds  of  Carriers  all  point  to  Persia  or  the  surrounding 
countries  as  the  source  of  this  Race.  And  it  deserves  especial 
notice  that,  even  if  we  neglect  the  Kali  Par  as  of  doubtful  origin, 
we  get  a series  broken  by  very  small  steps,  from  the  rock-pigeon, 
through  the  Bussorah,  which  sometimes  has  a beak  not  at  all  longer 
than  that  of  the  rock-pigeon  and  with  the  naked  skin  round  the 
eyes  and  over  the  nostrils  very  slightly  swollen  and  carunculated, 
through  the  Bagdad  sub-race  and  Dragons,  to  our  improved  English 
Carriers,  which  present  so  marvellous  a difference  from  the  rock- 
])jgeon  or  Colurtiha  livia. 

Race  III. — Runts.  (Scanderoons  : die  Florentiner  Tauben 
and  Hinkeltauben  of  Neumeister;  pigeon  bagadais,  pigeon 
remain. ) 

Beak  long,  massive ; body  of  great  size. 

Inextricable  confusion  reigns  in  the  classification,  affinities,  and 
naming  of  Runts.  Several  characters  which  are  generally  pretty 
constant  in  other  pigeons,  such  as  the  length  of  the  wings,  tail, 
legs,  and  neck,  and  the  amount  of  naked  skin  round  the  eyes,  are 
excessively  variable  in  Runts.  When  the  naked  skin  over  the 
nostrils  and  round  the  eyes  is  considerably  developed  and  wattled, 
and  when  the  size  of  body  is  not  very  great.  Runts  graduate  in  so 
insensible  a manner  into  Carriers,  that  the  distinction  is  quite 
arbitrary.  This  fact  is  likewise  shown  by  the  names  given  to  them 
in  diff(H’ent  parts  of  Europe.  Nevertheless,  taking:  the  most  distinct 
forms,  at  least  five  sub-races  (some  of  them  including  well-marked 
varieties)  can  be  distinguished,  which  differ  in  such  important 
points  of  structure,  that  they  would  be  considered  as  good  species 
in  a state  of  nature. 

Siib-o'uce  I.  Scanderoon  rf  English  Writers  (die  Florentiner  and 
llinkclfcauben  of  Neumeister). — Birds  of  this  sub-race,  of  which 
1 kept  one  alive  and  have  since  seen  two  others,  differ  from  the 
Bagadotten  of  Neumeister  only  in  not  having  the  beak  nearly  so 
much  curved  downwards,  and  in  the  naked  skin  round  the  eyes 
and  over  the  nostrils  being  hardly  at  all  wattled.  Nevertheless 
I have  felt  myself  compelled  to  place  the  Bagadotten  in  Race  II., 
or  that  of  the  Carriers,  and  the  present  bird  in  Race  III.,  or  that  of 


150 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V 


the  Rants,  The  Scanderoon  has  a very  short,  narrow,  and  elevated 
tail ; wings  extremely  short,  so  that  the  first  primary  feathers  were 
not  longer  than  those  of  a small  tumbler  pigeon  I Neck  long,  much 
bowed ; breast-bone  prominent.  Beak  long,  being  1-15  inch  from 
tip  to  feathered  base ; vertically  thick ; slightly  curved  downwards. 
The  skin  over  the  nostrils  swollen,  not  wattled ; naked  skin  round, 
the  eyes,  broad,  slightly  carunculated.  Legs  long;  feet  very  large. 
Skin  of  neck  bright  red,  often  showing  a naked  medial  line,  with 
a naked  red  patch  at  the  distal  end  of  the  radius  of  the  wing. 
My  bird,  as  measured  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  w^as  fully  2 inches  longer  than  the  rock-pigeon ; yet  the  tail 
itself  was  only  4 inches  in  length,  whereas  in  the  rock-pigeon, 
which  is  a much  smaller  bird,  the  tail  is  4f  inches  in  length. 

The  Hinkel-  or  Florentiner  Taube  of  Neumeister  (Table  XIII., 
fig.  1)  agrees  with  the  above  description  in  all  the  specified  charac- 
ters (for  the  beak  is  not  mentioned),  except  that  Neumeister 
expressly  says  that  the  neck  is  short,  whereas  in  my  Scanderoon 
it  was  remarkably  long  and  bowed;  so  that  the  Hinkel  forms  a 
well-marked  variety. 

Sub -race  II.  Pigeon  cygne  and  Pigeon  bagadrds  of  Boitard  and 
Corbie  (Scanderoon  of  French  writers). — I kept  two  of  these  birds 
alive,  imported  from  France.  They  differed  from  the  first  sub-race 
or  true  Scanderoon  in  the  much  greater  length  of  the  wing  and 
tail,  in  the  beak  not  being  so  long,  and  in  the  skin  about  the  head 
being  more  carunculated.  The  skin  of  the  neck  is  red ; but  the 
naked  patches  on  the  wings  are  absent.  One  of  my  birds  measured 
S8h  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  By  taking  the  length  of  the 
body  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the  two  wings  were  no  less 
than  5 inches  longer  than  those  of  the  rock-pigeon  ! The  tail  was 
Gr  inches  in  length,  and  therefore  2i  inches  longer  than  that  of  the 
Scanderoon, — a bird  of  nearly  the  same  size.  The  beak  is  longer, 
thicker,  and  broader  .than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  body.  The  eyelids,  nostrils,  and  internal  gape  of  mouth 
are  all  proportionally  very  large,  as  in  Carriers.  The  foot,  from  the 
end  of  the  middle  to  end  of  hind  toe,  was  actually  2-85  inches  in 
length,  which  is  an  excess  of  ‘32  of  an  inch  over  the  foot  of  the  rock- 
pigeon,  proportionally  to  the  relative  size  of  the  two  birds. 

Sub-racs  III.  Spanish  and  Roman  Runts. — I am  not  sure  that  I 
am  right  in  placing  these  Runts  in  a distinct  sub-race  ; yet,  if  wo 
take  well-characterized  birds,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  propriety 
of  the  separation.  They  are  heavy,  massive  birds,  with  shorter 
necks,  legs,  and  beaks  than  in  the  foregoing  races.  The  skin  over 
the  nostrils  is  swollen,  but  not  carunculated ; the  naked  skin  round 
the  eyes  is  not  very  wide,  and  only  slightly  carunculated ; and  I 
have  seen  a fine  so-called  8panish  Runt  with  hardly  any  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes.  Of  the  two  varieties  to  be  seen  in  England,  one, 
which  is  the  rarer,  has  very  long  wings  and  tail,  and  agrees  pretty 
closely  with  the  last  sub-race ; the  other,  with  shorter  wings  and 
tail,  is  apparently  the  Pigeon  rom^iin  ordinaire  of  Boitard  and  Corbi6. 


Chap.  V 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


151 


These  Eunts  are  apt  to  tremble  like  Fantails.  They  are  bad  flyers, 
A few  years  ago  Mr.  Gulliver  “ exhibited  a Eunt  which  weighed  1 lb, 
14  oz. ; and,  as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  two  Eunts  from 
the  south  of  France  were  lately  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  each 
of  which  weighed  2 lbs.  2k  oz.  A very  fine  rock-pigeon  from  the 
Shetland  Islands  weighed  only  14^  oz. 

Sub-race  IV.  Tronfo  of  Aldrovandi  (Leghorn  Eunt  ?). — In  Aldro- 
vandi’s  work  published  in  1600  there  is  a coarse  woodcut  of  a great 
Italian  pigeon,  with  an  elevated  tail,  short  legs,  massive  body,  and 
with  the  beak  short  and  thick.  I had  imagined  that  this  latter 
character  so  abnormal  in  the  group,  was  merely  a false  representa- 
tion from  bad  drawing;  but  Moore,  in  his  work  published  in  1735, 
says  that  he  possessed  a Leghorn  Eunt  of  which  “ the  beak  was 
very  short  for  so  large  a bird.”  In  other  respects  Moore’s  bird 
resembled  the  first  sub-race  or  Scanderoon,  for  it  had  a long  bowed 
neck,  long  legs,  short  beak,  and  elevated  tail,  and  not  much  wattle 
about  the  head.  So  that  Aldrovandi’s  and  Moore’s  birds  must  have 
formed  distinct  varrieties,  both  of  which  seem  to  be  now  extinct  in 
Europe.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  however,  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  in 
Madras  a short-beaked  Eunt  imported  from  Cairo. 

Sub-race  V.  Murassa  {adorned  Pigeon)  of  Madras. — Skins  of  these 
handsome  chequered  birds  were  sent  me  from  Madras  by  Sir  W, 
Elliot.  They  are  rather  larger  than  the  largest  rock-pigeon,  with 
longer  and  more  massive  beaks.  The  skin  over  the  nostrils  is  rather 
full  and  very  slightly  carunculated,  and  they  have  some  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes ; feet  large.  This  breed  is  intermediate  between  the 
rock-pigeon  and  a very  poor  variety  of  Eunt  or  Carrier. 

From  these  several  descriptions  we  see  that  with  Eunts,  as  with 
Carriers,  we  have  a fine  gradation  from  the  rock-pigeon  (with  the 
Tronfo  diverging  as  a distinct  branch)  to  our  largest  and  most 
massive  Eunts.  But  the  chain  of  affinities,  and  many  points  of  re- 
semblance, between  Eunts  and  carriers,  make  me  believe  that  these 
two  races  have  not  descended  by  independent  lines  Irom  the  rock- 
pigeon,  but  from  some  common  parent,  as  represented  in  the  Table, 
which  had  already  acquired  a moderately  long  beak  with  slightly 
swollen  skin  over  the  nostrils,  and  with  some  slightly  carunculated 
naked  skin  round  the  eyes. 

Eace  IV. — Barbs.  (Indische  Tauben  ; pigeons  polonaiB.) 

Beah  short,  broad,  deep  ; naJeed  skin  round  the  eyes,  broad  and 
carunculated  ; skin  over  nostrils  slightly  swollen.  ♦ 

Misled  by  the  extraordinary  shortness  and  form  of  the  beak,  I did 
not  at  first  perceive  the  near  affinity  of  this  Pace  to  that  of  Carriers 
until  the  fact  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  Mr.  Brent.  Subsequently, 
lifter  examining  the  Bussorah  Carrier,  I saw  that  no  very  great  amount 


**  ‘ Poultry  Chronicle,’  vol.  ii.  p.  573. 


152 


UOMESTIC  riGEONS 


Chap.  V 


of  modification  would  be  requisite  to  convert  it  into  a Barb.  This 
view  of  the  affinity  of  Barbs  to  Carriers  is  supported  by  the 
analogical  difference  between  the  short  and  long-beaked  Eunts ; and 


still  more  strongly  by  the  fact,  that  young  Barbs  and  Dragons, 
within  24  hours  after  being  hatched,  resemble  each  other  much  more 
closely  than  do  young  pigeons  of  other  and  equally  distinct  breeds. 


Fig.  20.— English  Flarb. 


CiiAK  V. ' DESCiaPTlON  OF  BREEDS.  1 53 

At  this  early  age,  the  length  of  beak,  the  swollen  skin  over  the 
rather  open  nostrils,  the  gape  of  the  mouth,  and  the  size  of  the  feet, 
are  the  same  in  l:)oth;  although  these  parts  afterwards  become 
widely  dilferent.  We  thus  see  that  embryology  (as  the  comparison 
of  very  young  animals  may  perhaps  be  called)  comes  into  play  in 
the  classification  of  domestic  varieties,  as  with  species  in  a state  of 
nat  are. 

Fanciers,  with  some  truth,  compare  the  head  and  beak  of  the 
Barb  to  that  of  a bullfinch.  The  Barb,  if  found  in  a state  of  nature 
would  certainly  have  been  placed  in  a new  genus  formed  for  its 
reception.  The  body  is  a little  larger  than  that  of  the  rock-pigeon, 
but  the  beak  is  more  than  '2  of  an  inch  shorter ; although  shorter 
it  is  both  vertically  and  horizontally  thicker.  From  the  outward 
flexure  of  the  rami  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  mouth  internally  is  very 
broad,  in  the  proportion  of  '6  to  '4  to  that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  The 
whole  head  is  broad.  The  skin  over  the  nostril  is  swollen,  but  not 
caruncnlated,  except  slightly  in  first-rate  birds  when  old;  whilst  the 
naked  skin  round  the  eye  is  broad  and  much  carunculated.  It  is 
sometimes  so  much  developed,  that  a bird^belonging  to  Mr.  Harrison 
Weir  could  hardly  see  to  pick  up  food  from  the  ground.  The 
eyelids  in  one  specimen  were  nearly  t^ice  as  long  as  those  of  the 
rock-pigeon.  The  feet  are  coarse  and  strong,  but  proportionally 
rather  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  plumage  is  generally 
dark  and  uniform.  Barbs,  in  short,  may  be  called  short-beaked 
Carriers,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  Carriers  that  the  Tronfo  of 
Aldrovandi  does  to  the  common  Runt. 

Group  III. 

This  group  is  artificial,  and  includes  a heterogeneous  collec- 
tion of  distinct  forms.  It  may  be  defined  by  the  beak,  in 
well-characterized  specimens  of  the  several  races,  being 
shorter  than  in  the  rock -pigeon,  and  by^  the  skin  round  the 
eyes  not  being  much  developed. 

B,ace  V. — Fantails. 


Stth-race  I.  European  Favtaih  (Pfauentauben ; trer^bleurs). 
Tail  expanded,  directed  upwards,  formed  (f  many  ftatlitrs  ; oib-yland 
ihorted ; body  and  beak  rather  short. 

The  normal  number  of  tail-feathers  in  the  gennn  Coluraba  is  12 ; 
hut  Fantails  have  from  only  12  (as  has  been  asserted)  up  to, 
according  to  MM.  Boitard  cind  Corbie,  42.  I have  counted  in  one 
of  my  own  birds  33,  and  at  Calcutta  Mr.  Blyth^'-^  has  counted  in  an 
imperfect  tail  34  feathers.  In  Madras,  as  1 am  informed  by  Sir  W. 


‘ Annals'and  Mag.  of  Nat.  History,’  vol.  xix.,  184-7,  p.  105. 


UOMESTIC  PIGEONS 


CllAl'.  V 


io4 

Elliot,  32  is  the  standard  number ; but  in  England  number  is  much 


less  valued  than  t be  position  and  expansion  of  the  tail.  The  feathers 
are  arranged  in  an  irregular  double  row;  their  permanent  fanlike 


Fig.  21— English  Pautail. 


Chav.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


155 


expansion  and  their  upward  direction  are  more  remarkable  characters 
than  their  increased  nnmber.  The  tail  is  capable  of  the  same  move- 
ments as  in  other  pigeons,  and  can  be  depressed  so  as  to  sweep  the 
ground.  It  arises  from  a more  expanded  basis  than  in  other  pigeons ; 
and  in  three  skeletons  there  were  one  or  two  extra  coccygeal  vertebrae. 
I have  examined  many  specimens  of  various  colours  from  different 
countries,  and  there  was  no  trace  of  the  oil-gland ; this  is  a curious 
case  of  abortion.^^  The  neck  is  thin  and  bowed  backwards.  The 
breast  is  broad  and  protuberant.  The  feet  are  small.  The  carriage 
of  the  bird  is  very  different  from  that  of  other  pigeons  ; in  good 
birds  the  head  touches  the  tail-feathers,  which  consequently  often 
become  crumpled.  They  habitually  tremble  much  : and  their  necks 
have  an  extraordinary,  apparently  convulsive,  backward  and  forward 
movement.  Good  birds  walk  in  a singular  manner,  as  if  their  small 
feet  were  stiff.  Owing  to  their  large  tails,  they  fly  badly  on  a windy 
day.  The  dark-coloured  varieties  are  generally  larger  than  white 
Fantails. 

Although  between  the  best  and  common  Fantails,  now  existing  in 
England,  there  is  a vast  difference  in  the  position  and  size  of  the 
tail,  in  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  in  the  convulsive  move- 
ments of  the  neck,  in  the  manner  of  walking,  and  in  the  breadth  of 
the  breast,  the  differences  so  graduate  away,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  more  than  one  sub -race.  Moore,  however,  an  excellent  old 
authority says,  that  in  1785  there  were  two  sorts  of  broad-tailed 
shakers  (f.  e.  fantails),  “ one  having  a neck  much  longer  and  more 
slender  than  the  other;”  and  I am  informed  by  Mr  B.  P.  Brent, 
that  there  is  an  existing  German  Fantail  with  a thicker  and  shorter 
beak. 

Sub-race  II.  Java  Fantail. — Mr.  Swinhoe  sent  me  from  Amoy,  in 
China,  the  skin  of  a Fantail  belonging  to  a breed  known  to  have 
been  imported  from  Java.  It  was  coloured  in  a peculiar  manner, 
unlike  any  European  Fantail ; and,  for  a Fantail,  had  a remarkably 
short  beak.  Although  a good  bird  of  the  kind,  it  had  only  14  tail- 
feathers  ; but  Mr.  Swinhoe  has  counted  in  other  birds  of  this  breed 
from  18  to  24  tail-feathers.  From  a rough  sketch  sent  to  me,  it  is 
evident  that  the  tail  is  not  so  much  expanded  or  so  much  upraised 
as  in  even  second-rate  European  Fantails.  The  bird  shakes  its  neck 
like  our  Fantails.  It  had  a well-developed  oil-gland.  Fantails 
were  known  in  India,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  before  the  year  1600  ; 
and  we  may  suspect  that  in  the  Java  Fantail  we  see  the  breed  in 
its  earlier  and  less  improved  condition. 


This  gland  occurs  in  most  birds  ; 
but  Nitzsch  (in  his  ‘ Pterylographie,’ 
1840,  p.  55)  states  that  it  is  absent 
in  two  species  of  Columba,  in  several 
S}i'icie.s  of  Psittacus,  in  some  sjiecies  of 
Otis,  and  in  most  or  all  birds  of  the 
Ostrich  family.  It  can  hardly  be  an 
accidental  coincidence  that  tiu  two 


species  of  Columba,  which  are  desti- 
tute of  an  oil-gland,  have  an  unusua* 
number  of  tail-feathers,  namely  16, 
and  in  this  respect  resemble  Fantails. 

See  ehe  two  excellent  edition.^ 
published  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton  in  1852 
and  1858,  entitled  ‘A  Treatise  on 
Fancy  Pigeons.’ 


156 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  V. 


Eace  VI— Turbit  and  Owl.  (Moventauben ; pigeons  a 

cravate.) 

Feathers  divergent  along  the  front  of  the  neck  and  breast;  beak 
very  short,  vertically  rather  thick  ; oesophagus  somewhat  enlarged. 

Turbits  and  Owls  differ  from  each  other  sliglitly  in  the  shape  of 
the  head;  the  former  have  a crest,  and  the  beak  is  differently 
curved ; but  they  may  be  here  conveniently  grouped  together. 
These  pretty  birds,  some  of  which  are  very  small,  can  be  recognised 
at  once  by  the  feathers  irregularly  diverging,  like  a frill,  along  the 
front  of  the  neck,  in  the  same  manner,  but  in  a less  degree,  as  along 
the  back  of  the  neck  in  the  Jacobin.  They  have  the  remarkable 
habit  of  continually  and  momentarily  inflating  the  upper  part  of 
the  oesophagus,  which  causes  a movement  in  the  frill.  When 
the  oesophagus  of  a dead  bird  is  inflated,  it  is  seen  to  be  larger  than 
in  other  breeds,  and  not  so  distinctly  separated  from  the  crop. 
The  Pouter  inflates  both  its  true  crop  and  oesophagus;  the  Turbit 
inflates  in  a much  less  degree  the  oesophagus  alone.  The  beak  of 
the  Turbit  is  very  short,  being  ‘28  of  an  inch  shorter  than  that  of  the 
rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  their  bodies;  and  in 
some  owls  brought  by  Mr.  E.  Yernon  Harcourt  from  Tunis,  it  was 
even  shorter.  The  beak  is  vertically  thicker,  and  perhaps  a little 
broader,  in  23roportion  to  that  of  the  rock-pigeon. 


Race  VII. — Tqmblkks.  (Tiimmler,  or  Burzeltauben ; cul- 
butants.) 

During  flight,  tumble  backwards;  body  generally  small;  beak 
generally  short,  sometimes  excessively  short  and  conical. 

This  race  may  be  divided  into  four  sub-races,  namely,  Persian, 
Lotan,  Common,  and  short-faced  Tumblers.  These  sub-races  in- 
clude many  varieties  which  breed  true.  I have  examined  eight 
skeletons  of  various  kinds  of  Tumblers  : excepting  in  one  imperfect 
and  doubtful  specimen,  the  ribs  are  only  seven  in  number,  whereas 
the  rock-pigeon  has  eight  ribs. 

Sub-race  I.  Persian  Tumblers. — I received  a pair  direct  from  Persia, 
from  the  Hon.  G.  Murray.  They  are  rather  smaller  birds  than  the 
wild  rock-pigeon,  about  the  size  of  the  common  dovecot  pigeon, 
white  and  mottled,  slightly  feathered  on  the  feet,  with  the  beak  just 
perceptibly  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  H.M.  Consul,  Mr. 
Keith  Abbott,  informs  me  that  the  difference  in  the  length  of  beak  is 

slight,  that  only  practised  Persian  fanciers  can  distinguish  these 
Tumblers  from  the  common  pigeon  of  the  country.  He  informs  me 
that  they  fly  in  floeks  high  up  in  the  air  and  tumble  well.  Some  of 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  157 

them  occasionally  appear  to  become  giddy  and  tumble  to  the  ground, 
in  which  respect  they  resemble  some  of  our  Tumblers. 


Sub-race  II.  Lotan,  or  Lowtun : Indian  Ground  Tuniblers.  Tnese 
birds  present  one  of  the  most  remarkable  inherited  habits  or  instincts 
ever  recorded.  The  specimens  sent  to  me  from  Madras  by  Sir  . 


J58 


DOMESTIC  pigeons: 


Chap.  V 


Elliot  are  wliitc,  slightly  feathered  on  the  feet,  with  the  feathers 
on  the  head  reversed ; and  they  are  rather  smaller  than  the  rock  or 
dovecot  pigeon.  The  beak  is  proportionally  only  slightly  shorter 
and  rather  thinner  than  in  the  rock- pigeon.  These  birds  when 
gently  shaken  and  placed  on  the  ground  immediately  begin  tumbling 
head  over  heels,  and  they  continue  thus  to  tumble  until  taken  up 
and  soothed, — the  ceremony  being  generally  to  blow  in  their  faces, 
as  in  recovering  a person  from  a state  of  hypnotism  or  mesmerism. 
It  is  asserted  that  they  will  continue  to  roll  over  till  they  die,  if  not 
taken  up.  There  is  aluindant  evidence  with  respect  to  these  remark- 
able peculiarities;  but  what  makes  the  case  the  more  worthy  of 
attention  is,  that  the  habit  has  been  inherited  since  before  the  year 
1600,  for  the  breed  is  distinctly  described  in  the  ‘ Ayeen  Akbery.’ 
Mr.  Evans  kept  a pair  in  London,  imported  by  Captain  Vigne;  and 
he  assures  me  that  he  has  seen  them  tumble  in  the  air,  as  well  as  in 
the  manner  above  described  on  the  ground.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  however, 
writes  to  me  from  Madras,  that  he  is  informed  that  they  tumble 
exclusively  on  the  ground,  or  at  a very  small  height  above  it.  He 
also  mentions  birds  of  another  sub-variety,  called  the  Kalmi  Lotan, 
which  begin  to  roll  over  if  only  touched  on  the  neck  with  a rod  or 
wand. 

Siih-ra  e IT],  Common  English  Tumhlers. — These  birds  have 
exactly  the  same  habits  as  the  Persian  Tumbler,  but  tumble  better. 
The  English  bird  is  rather  smaller  than  the  Persian,  and  the  beak 
is  plainly  shorter.  Compared  with  the  rock-pigeon,  and  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  body,  the  beak  is  from  T5  to  nearly  '2  of 
an  inch  shorter,  but  it  is  not  thinner.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  the  common  Tumbler,  namely,  Baldheads,  Beards,  and  Dutch 
Rollers.  1 have  kept  the  latter  alive  ; they  have  differently  shaped 
heads,  longer  necks,  and  are  feather-footed.  They  tumble  to  an 
extraordinary  degree  ; as  Mr.  Brent  remarks,’®  “ Every  few  seconds 
over  they  go  ; one,  two,  or  three  summersaults  at  a time.  Here 
" and  there  a bird  gives  a very  quick  and  rapid  spin,  revolving  like 
“ a wheel,  though  they  sometimes  lose  their  balance,  and  make  a 
“ rather  ungraceful  fall,  in  which  they  occasionally  hurt  themselves 
“ by  striking  some  object.”  From  Madras  I have  received  several 
specimens  of  the  common  Tumbler  of  India,  differing  slightly  from 
each  other  in  the  length  of  their  beaks.  Mr.  Brent  sent  me  a dead 
specimen  of  a “ House-tumbler,”  which  is  a Scot(3h  variety,  not 


16  English  translation,  by  E.  Glad- 
win, 4th  edition,  vol.  i.  The  habit 
of  the  Lotan  is  also  described  in  the 
Persian  treatise  before  alluded  to, 
published  about  100  years  ago : at  this 
date  the  Lotans  were  generally  white 
and  crested  as  at  present.  Mr.  Blyth 
describes  these  birds  in  ‘ Annals  and 
Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol.  xiv.,  1847, 
p.  101;  he  says  that  they  “may  be 


seen  at  any  of  the  Calcutta  bird- 
dealers.” 

16  ‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Oct. 
22, 1861,  p.  76. 

ii’  iSee  the  account  of  the  House- 
tumblers  kept  at  Glasgow,  in  the 
‘ Cottage  Gardener,’  1858,  p.  285. 
Also  Mr.  Brent’s  paper,  ‘ Journal  of 
Horticulture,’  1861,  p.  76. 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


159 


differing  in  general  appearance  and  form  of  beak  from  the  common 
Tumbler.  Mr.  Brent  states  that  these  birds  generally  begin  to 
tumble  “almost  as  soon  as  they  can  well  fly  ; at  three  months  old 
“they  tumble  well,  but  still  fly  strong;  at  five  or  sb:  months  they 
“ tumble  excessively ; and  in  the  second  year  they  mostly  give  up 
“ flying,  on  account  of  their  tumbling  so  much  and  so  close  to  the 
“ ground.  Some  fly  round  with  the  flock,  throwing  a clean  snmmer- 
“ sault  every  few  yards,  till  they  are  obliged  to  settle  from  giddiness 
“ and  exhaustion.  These  are  called  Air  Tumblers,  and  they  com- 
“ monly  throw"  from  twenty  to  thirty  summersaultn  in  a minute, 
“ each  clear  and  clean.  I have  one  red  cock  that  I have  on  two  or 
“ three  occasions  timed  by  my  watch,  and  counted  forty  summer- 
“ saults  in  the  minute.  Others  tumble  differently.  At  first  they 
“ throw  a single  summersault,  then  it  is  double,  till  it  becomes  a 
“continuous  roll,  which  puts  an  end  to  flying,  for  if  they  fly  a few 
“ yards  over  they  go,  and  roll  till  they  reach  the  ground.  Thus  I 
“ had  one  kill  herself,  and  another  broke  his  leg.  Many  of  them 
“ turn  over  only  a few"  inches  from  the  ground,  and  will  tumble  two 
“ or  three  times  in  flying  across  their  loft.  These  are  called  Honse- 
“ tumblers,  from  tumbling  in  the  house.  The  act  of  tumbling  seems 
“ to  be  one  over  which  they  have  no  control,  an  involuntary  rnove- 
“ ment  which  they  seem  to  try  to  prevent.  I have  seen  a bird  some- 
“ times  in  his  struggles  fly  a yard  or  two  straight  upwards,  the 
“ impulse  forcing  him  backwards  while  he  struggles  to  go  forwards. 
“ If  suddenly  startled,  or  in  a strange  place,  they  seem  less  able  to 
“ fly  than  if  quiet  in  their  accustomed  loft.”  These  House-turn  biers 
differ  from  the  Lotan  or  Ground  Tumbler  of  India,  in  not  requiring 
to  be  shaken  in  order  to  begin  tumbling.  The  breed  has  probably 
been  formed  merely  by  selecting  the  best  common  Tumblers,  though 
it  is  possible  that  they  may  have  been  crossed  at  some  former  period 
with  Lotans. 

Sub-race  IV.  Short-faced  Tumblers. — These  are  mnrvellous  birds, 
and  are  the  glory  and  pride  of  many  fanciers.  In  their  extremely 
short,  sharp,  and  conical  beaks,  with  the  skin  over  the  nostrils  but 
little  developed,  they  almost  depart  from  the  type  of  the  Columbidee. 
Their  heads  are  nearly  globular  and  upright  in  front,  so  that  some 
fanciers  say^®  “the  head  should  resemble  a cherry  wnth  a barley- 
corn stuck  in  it.”  These  are  the  smallest  kind  of  pigeons.  Mr. 
Esquilant  possessed  a blue  Baldhead,  tw"o  years  old,  which  w'hen 
alive  weighed,  before  feeding-time,  only  6oz.  5drs. ; two  others, 
each  weighed  7 oz.  We  have  seen  that  a wild  rock-pigeon  weighed 
14  oz.  2 drs.,  and  a Bunt  34  oz.  4 drs.  Short-faced  Tumblers  have 
a remarkably  erect  carriage,  with  prominent  breasts,  drooping  wings, 
and  very  small  feet.  The  length  of  the  beak  from  the  tip  to  the 
feathered  base  was  in  one  good  bird  only  '4  of  an  inch ; in  a wild 
rock-pigeon  it  was  exactly  double  this  length.  As  these  Tumblers 
have  shorter  bodies  than  the  wild  rock-pigeon,  they  ought  of  course 


J.  M.  Eatou’s  ‘Treatise  on  Pigeons,’  1852,  p.  S. 


160 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : Chap,  V 


, to  have  sliorter  beaks;  but  proportionally  with  the  size  of  tlio  body, 


the  beak  is  -28  of  an  inch  too  short.  So,  again,  the  feet  of  this  bird 


Fig.  23 — Sho  t-laced  English  Tumbler. 


OflAP.  V. 


DESCEIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


161 


were  actually  '45  shorter,  and  proportionally  ’21  of  an  inch  shorter, 
than  the  feet  of  the  rock-pigeon.  The  middle  toe  has  only  twelve 
or  thirteen,  instead  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  scutellaB.  The  primary 
wing-feathers  are  not  rarely  nine  instead  of  ten  in  number.  The 
improved  short -faced  Tumblers  have  almost  lost  the  power  of 
tumbling;  but  there  are  several  authentic  accounts  of  their  occa- 
sionally tumbling.  There  are  several  sub-varieties,  such  as  Bald- 
lieads.  Beards,  Mottles,  and  Almonds;  the  latter  are  remarkable 
from  not  acquiring  their  perfectly-coloured  plumage  until  they  have 
moulted  three  or  four  times.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
most  of  these  sub-varieties,  some  of  which  breed  truly,  have  arisen 
since  the  publication  of  Moore’s  treatise  in  1785.^® 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  whole  group  of  Tumblers,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conceive  a more  perfect  gradation  than  I have  now  lying 
before  me,  from  the  roch-pigeon,  through  Persian,  Lotan,  and 
common  Tumblers,  up  to  the  marvellous  short-faced  birds  ; which 
latter,  no  ornithologist,  judging  from  mere  external  structure,  would 
place  in  the  same  genius  with  the  rock-pigeon.  The  differences 
between  the  successive  steps  in  this  series  are  not  greater  than  those 
which  may  be  observed  between  common  dovecot-pigeons  {C.  livia) 
brought  from  different  countries. 

Race  YIII. — Indian  Frill-back. 

Beak  very  short ; feathers  reversed. 

A sj)ecimen  of  this  bird,  in  spirits,  was  sent  to  me  from  Madras 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot.  It  is  wholly  different  from  the  Frill-back  often 
exhibited  in  England.  It  is  a smallish  bird,  about  the  size  of  the 
common  Tumbler,  but  Inas  a beak  in  all  its  proportions  like  our 
short-faced  Tumblers.  The  beak,  measured  trom  the  tip  to  the 
feathered  base,  was  only  ’46  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  feathers 
over  the  whole  body  are  reversed  or  curl  backwards.  Had  this  bird 
occurred  in  Europe,  I should  have  thought  it  only  a monstrous 
variety  of  our  improved  Tumbler : but  as  short-faced  Tumblers  are 
not  known  in  India,  I think  it  must  rank  as  a distinct  breed.  Pro- 
bably this  is  the  breed  seen  by  Hasselquist  in  1757  at  Cairo,  and 
said  to  liave  been  imported  from  India. 

Race  IX. — Jacobin.  (Zopf-  or  Perrfickentaube ; nonnain.) 

Feathers  of  the  neck  forming  a hood ; wings  and  tail  long ; heak 
moderately  short. 

This  pigeon  can  at  once  be  recognised  by  its  hood,  almost  enclos- 
ing the  head  and  meeting  in  front  of  the  neck.  The  hood  seems  to 
be  merely  an  exaggeration  of  the  crest  of  reversed  feathers  on  the 
back  of  the  head,  which  is  common  to  many  sub- varieties,  and 


19  J.  M.  Eaton’s  Treatise,  edit.  1858,  p.  70. 


12 


162 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  Y. 


which  in  tlio  Latztauhe is  in  a nearly  intermediate  state  between 
a hood  and  a crest.  The  feathers  of  the  hood  are  elongated.  Both 
the  wings  and  tail  are  likewise  much  elongated ; thus  the  folded 
wing  of  the.  Jacobin,  though  a somewhat  smaller  bird,  is  fully  li 
inch  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  Taking  the  length  of  the 
body  without  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the  folded  wing, 
proportionally  with  the  wings  of  the  rock-pigeon,  is  21  inches  too 
long,  and  the  two  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  5i  inches  too  long.  In 
disposition  this  bird  is  singularly  quiet,  seldom  flying  or  moving 
about,  as  Bechstein  and  Eiedel  have  likewise  remarked  in 
Germany.^^  The  latter  author  also  notices  the  length  of  the  wings 
and  tail.  The  beak  is  nearly  2 of  an  inch  shorter  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  body  than  in  the  rock -pigeon ; but  the  internal  gape 
of  the  mouth  is  considerably  wider. 

Group  IV. 

The  birds  of  this  group  may  be  characterised  by  their 
resemblance  in  all  important  points  of  structure,  especially 
in  the  beak,  to  the  rock-pigeon.  The  Trumpeter  forms  the 
only  well  marked  race.  Of  the  numerous  other  sub-races  and 
varieties  I shall  specify  only  a few  of  the  most  distinct,  which 
I have  myself  seen  and  kept  alive. 

Race  X. — Trumpeter.  (Trommel taube  ; pigeon  tambour, 

glouglou.) 

A tuft  of  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  beak  curling  forward  ; feet 
much  feathered  ; voice  very  peculiar ; size  exceeding  that  of  the 
rock-pigeon. 

This  is  a well-marked  breed,  with  a peculiar  voice,  wholly  unlike 
that  of  any  other  pigeon.  The  coo  is  rapidly  repeated,  and  is  con- 
tinued for  several  minutes ; hence  their  name  of  Trumpeters.  They 
are  also  characterised  by  a tuft  of  elongated  feathers,  which  curls 
forward  over  the  base  of  the  beak,  and  which  is  possessed  by  no 
other  breed.  Their  feet  are  so  heavily  feathered,  that  they  almost 
appear  like  little  wings.  They  are  larger  birds  than  the  rock- 
pigeon,  but  their  beak  is  of  very  nearly  the  same  proportional  size. 
Their  feet  are  rather  small.  This  breed  was  perfectly  characterised 
in  Moore’s  time,  in  1735.  Mr.  Brent  says  that  two  varieties  exist, 
which  differ  in  size. 


Neumeister,  ‘ Taubenzucht,’ Tab. 
i,  fig.  i. 

Riedel,  ‘ Die  Taubenzucht,’  1824. 


s.  26.  Bechstein,  ‘ Naturgeschichte 
Deutschlands,’  Band  iv.  s.  36,  1795. 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


163 


Race  '^1.— Scarcely  differing  in  structure  from  the  wild 
Columbia  livia. 

Sub-race  I.  Laughers.  Size  less  than  the  Bock-pigeon  ; voice  very 
iu-rvLliar. — As  this  bird  agrees  iu  nearly  all  its  proportions  with  the 
rockrpigeon,  though  of  smaller  size,  I should  not  have  thought  it 
u’oilhy  of  mention,  had  it  not  been  for  its  peculiar  voice— a character 
supposed  seldom  to  vary  with  birds.  Although  the  voice  of  the 
Ijaugher  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Trumpeter,  yet  one  of  miy 
Trumpeters  used  to  utter  a single  note  like  that  of  the  Laugher.  I 
have  kept  two  varieties  of  Laughers,  which  differed  only  in  one 
variety,  being  turn-crowned ; the  smooth-headed  kind,  for  which  I 
am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Brent,  besides  its  peculiar  note, 
used  to  coo  iu  a singular  and  pleasing  manner,  which,  independently, 
struck  both  Mr.  Brent  and  myself  as  resembling  that  of  the  turtle- 
dove. Both  varieties  come  from  Arabia.  This  breed  was  known  by 
Moore  in  1785.  A pigeon  which  seems  to  say  Yak-roo  is  mentioned 
in  1600  in  the  ‘ Ayeen  Akbery,  ’ and  is  probably  the  same  breed. 
Sir  W.  Elliot  has  also  sent  me  from  Madras  a pigeon  called  Yahui, 
said  to  have  come  from  Mecca,  which  does  not  differ  in  appearance 
from  the  Laugher;  it  has  “a  deep  melancholy  voice,  like  Yahu, 
often  repeated.”  Yahu,  yahu,  means  Oh  God,  oh  God;  and 
Sayzid  Mohammed  Musari,  in  the  treatise  written  about  100  years 
ago,  says  that  these  birds  “ are  not  flown,  because  they  repeat  the 
name  of  the  most  high  God.”  Mr.  Keith  Abbott,  however,  informs 
me  that  the  common  pigeon  is  called  Yahoo  in  Persia. 

Sub-race  II.  Common  Frill-hack  (die  Strupptaube)  Beak  rather 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon ; feathers  reversed. — This  is  a consider- 
ably larger  bird  than  the  rock-pigeon,  and  with  the  beak,  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  body,  a little  (viz.  by  ’Ol  of  an  inch)  longer. 
The  feathers,  especially  on  the  wing-coverts,  have  their  points  curled 
upwards  or  back-wards. 

Sub-race  III.  Nuns  (Pigeons  coquilles).  These  elegant  birds  are 
smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon.  The  beak  is  actually  lY,  and  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  the  body  T of  an  inch  shorter  than  in  the 
rock-pigeons,  although  of  the  same  thickness.  In  young  birds  the 
scutellaa  on  the  tarsi  and  toes  are  generally  of  a leaden-black  colour ; 
and  this  is  a remarkable  character  (though  observed  in  a lesser 
degree  in  some  other  breeds),  as  the  colour  of  the  legs  in  the  adult 
state  is  subject  to  very  little  variation  in  any  breed.  I have  on  two 
or  three  occasions  counted  thirteen  or  fourteen  feathers  in  the  tail ; 
triis  likewise  occurs  in  the  barely  distinct  breed  called  Helmets. 
Nuns  are  symmetrically  coloured,  with  the  head,  primary  wing- 
feathers,  tail,  and  tail-coverts  of  the  same  colour,  namely,  black  or 
red,  and  with  the  rest  of  the  body  white.  This  breed  has  retained 
the  same  character  since  Aldrovandi  wrote  in  1600.  I have  received 
from  Madras  almost  similarly  coloured  birds. 

Sub-race  TV.  Spots  (die  Blasstauben  ; pigeons  heurtes), — Tliopr 


164 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  V. 


birds  arc  a very  little  larger  than  the  rock-pigeon,  with  the  beak  a 
trace  smaller  in  all  its  dimensions,  and  with  the  feet  decidedly 
smaller.  They  are  symmetrically  coloured,  with  a spot  on  the 
forehead,  with  the  tail  and  tail-coverts  of  the  same  colour,  the  rest 
of  the  body  being  white.  This  breed  existed  in  1676;^^  and  in  1735 
Moore  remarks  that  they  breed  truly,  as  is  the  case  at  the  present  day. 

Sub-race  V.  Swallows. — These  birds,  as  measured  from  tip  to  tip 
of  wing,  or  from  the  end  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  exceed 
in  size  the  rock-pigeon ; but  their  bodies  are  much  less  bulky ; 
their  feet  and  legs  are  likewise  smaller.  The  beak  is  of  about  the 
same  length,  but  rather  slighter.  Altogether  their  general  appear- 
ance is  considerably  different  from  that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  Their 
heads  and  wings  are  of  the  same  colour,  the  rest  of  the  body  being- 
white.  Their  flight  is  said  to  be  peculiar.  This  seems  to  be  a 
modern  breed,  which,  however,  originated  before  the  year  1795  in 
Grcrmany,  for  it  is  described  by  Bechstein. 

Besides  the  several  breeds  now  described,  three  or  four  other  very 
distinct  kinds  existed  lately,  or  perhaps  still  exist,  in  Germany  and 
France.  Firstly,  the  Karmeliten,  or  carme  pigeon,  which  I have 
not  seen;  it  is  described  as  of  small  size,  with  very  short  legs,  and 
with  an  extremely  short  beak.  Secondly,  the  Finnikin,  which  is 
now  extinct  in  England.  It  had,  according  to  Moore’s"^  treatise, 
published  in  1735,  a tuft  of  feathers  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head, 
which  ran  down  its  back  not  unlike  a horse  s mane.  “ When  it  is 
salacious  it  rises  over  the  hen  and  turns  round  three  or  four  times, 
flapping  its  wings,  then  reverses  and  turns  as  many  times  the  other 
way.”  The  Turner,  on  the  other  hand,  when  it  plays  to  the 
female,  turns  only  one  way.”  Whether  these  extraordinary  state- 
ments may  be  trusted  I know  not;  but  the  inheritance  of  any 
habit  may  be  believed,  after  what  we  have  seen  with  respect  to 
the  Ground-tumbler  of  India.  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie  describe  a 
pigeon  which  has  the  singular  habit  of  sailing  for  a considerable 
time  through  the  air,  without  flapping  its  wings,  like  a bird  of  prey. 
The  confusion  is  inextricable,  from  the  time  of  Aldrovandi  in  1600 
to  the  present  day,  in  the  accounts  published  of  the  Draijers, 
Smiters,  Finnikins,  Turners,  Claquers,  &c.,  which  are  all  remark- 
able from  their  manoer  of  flight.  Mr.  Brent  informs  me  that  he 
has  seen  one  of  these  breeds  in  Germany  with  its  wing-feathers 
injured  from  having  been  so  often  struck  together  but  he  did  not 
see  it  flying.  An  old  stuffed  specimen  of  a Finnikin  in  the  British 
Museum  presents  no  well-marked  character.  Thirdly,  a singular 
pigeon  with  a forked  tail  is  mentioned  in  some  treatises ; and  as 
Bechstein^^  briefly  describes  and  figures  this  bird,  with  a tail  “having 


22  Willughby’s  ‘ Ornithology,’  edit- 
ed by  Eay. 

23  J.  M.  Eaton’s  edition  (1858)  of 
Moore,  p.  98. 


24  Pigeon  pattu  plongeur.  ‘ Les 
Pigeons,’  &c.,  p.  165. 

26 ‘ Naturgeschiclite  Deutschlands,’ 
Band  iv.  s 47. 


Chap.  V. 


DESCEIPTION  OF  BEEEDS, 


165 


completely  the  structure  of  that  of  the  house-swallow,”  it  must  once 
have  existed,  for  Bechstein  was  far  too  good  a naturalist  to  have 
confounded  any  distinct  species  with  the  domestic  pigeon.  Lastly, 
an  extraordinary  pigeon  imported  from  Belguim  has  lately  been 
exhibited  at  the  Philoperisteron  Society  in  London, which  ‘‘  con- 
joins the  colour  of  an  archangel  with  the  head  of  an  owl  or  barb, 
its  most  striking  peculiarity  being  the  extraordinary  length  of  the 
tail  and  wing-feathers,  the  latter  crossing  beyond  the  tail,  and  giving 
to  the  biid  the  appearance  of  a gigantic  swift  (Cypselus),  or  long- 
winged  hawk.”  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  this  bird  weighed 
only  10  ounces,  but  in  length  was  ISi  inches  from  tip  to  beak 
to  end  of  tail,  and  321  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing;  now  the 
wild  rock-pigeon  weighs  141  ounces,  and  measures  from  tip  to 
beak  to  end  of  tail  15  inches,  and  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing  only  261 
inches. 

I have  now  described  all  the  domestic  pigeons  known  to 
me,  and  have  added  a few  others  on  reliable  authority.  I 
have  classed  them  under  four  Groups,  in  order  to  mark  their 
affinities  and  degrees  of  difference;  but  the  third  group  is 
artificial,  lire  kinds  examined  by  me  form  eleven  races, 
which  include  several  sub-races ; and  even  these  latter  present 
differences  that  would  certainly  have  been  thought  of  specific 
value  if  observed  in  a state  of  nature.  The  sub-races  like- 
wise include  many  strictly  inherited  varieties ; so  that 
altogether  there  must  exist,  as  previously  remarked,  above 
150  kinds  which  can  be  distinguished,  though  generally  by 
characters  of  extremely  slight  importance.  Many  of  the 
genera  of  the  Columbidte,  admitted  by  ornithologists,  do  not 
differ  in  any  great  degree  from  each  other;  taking  this  into 
consideration,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  several  of  the  most 
strongly  characterised  domestic  forms,  if  found  wild,  would 
have  been  placed  in  at  least  five  new  genera.  Thus  a new 
genus  would  have  been  formed  for  the  reception  of  the 
improved  English  Pouter : a second  genus  for  Carriers  and 
Bunts ; and  this  would  have  been  a wide  or  comprehensive 
genus,  for  it  would  have  admitted  common  Spanish  Bunts 
without  any  wattle,  short-beaked  Bunts  like  the  Tronfo,  and 
the  improved  English  Carrier : a third  genus  vrould  have 
been  formed  for  the  Barb:  a fourth  for  the  Fan  tail : and 
lastly,  a fifth  for  the  short  beaked,  not- wattled  pigeons,  such 

Mr,  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  ‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Jan.  20th,  1863,  p.  58. 


166 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chai>.  V 


as  Turbits  and  short-faced  Tumblers.  The  remaining  do- 
mestic forms  might  have  been  included,  in  the  same  genua 
with  the  wild  rock-pigeon. 

Individual  Variability ; variations  of  a remarkable  nature. 

The  differences  which  we  have  as  yet  considered  are  characr- 
teristic  of  distinct  breeds ; but  there  are  other  differences, 
either  confined  to  individual  birds,  or  often  observed  in 
certain  breeds  but  not  characteristic  of  them.  These  indi- 
vidual differences  are  of  importance,  as  they  might  in  most 
cases  be  secured  and  accumulated  by  man’s  power  of  selection 
and  thus  an  existing  breed  might  be  greatly  modified  or  a 
new  one  formed.  Fanciers  notice  and  select  only  those  slight 
differences  which  are  externally  visible ; but  the  whole 
organisation  is  so  tied  together  by  correlation  of  growth, 
that  a change  in  one  part  is  frequently  accompanied  by  other 
changes.  For  our  purpose,  modifications  of  all  kinds  are 
equall}'’  important,  and  if  affecting  a part  which  does  not 
commonly  vary,  are  of  more  importance  than  a modification 
in  some  conspicuous  part.  At  the  present  day  any  visible 
deviation  of  character  in  a well-established  breed  is  rejected 
as  a blemish;  but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  at  an  early 
period,  before  well-marked  breeds  had  been  formed,  such 
deviations  would  have  been  rejected;  on  the  contrary,  they 
would  have  been  eagerly  preserved  as  presenting  a novelty, 
and  would  then  have  been  slowly  augmented,  as  we  shall  here- 
after more  clearly  see,  by  the  process  of  unconscious  selection. 

I have  made  numerous  measurements  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  in  the  several  breeds,  and  have  hardly  ever  found  them  quite 
the  same  in  birds  of  the  same  breed, — the  differences  being  greater 
than  we  commonly  meet  with  in  wild  species  within  the  same 
district.  To  begin  with  the  primary  feathers  of  the  wing  and  tail ; 
but  I must  first  mention,  as  some  readers  may  not  be  aware  of  the 
fact,  that  the  number  of  the  primary  wing  and  tail-feathers  in  wild 
birds  is  generally  constant,  and  characterises,  not  only  whole  genera, 
but  even  whole  families.  When  the  tail-feathers  are  unusually 
numerous,  as  for  instance  in  the  swan,  they  are  apt  to  be  variable 
in  number ; but  this  does  not  apply  to  the  several  species  and  genera 
of  the  Columbidie,  which  never  (as  far  as  I can  hear)  have  less  than 
twelve  or  more  than  sixteen  tail-feathers;  and  these  numbers  cha- 

/ 


Chap.  V 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY. 


107 


racterise,  with  rare  exception,  whole  sub-families.^  The  wild  rock- 
pigeon  has  twelve  tail-feathers.  With  Fantails,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  number  varies  from  fourteen  to  forty-two.  In  two  young  birds 
in  the  same  nest  I counted  twenty -two  and  twenty-seven  feathers. 
Pouters  are  very  liable  to  have  additional  tail-feathers,  and  I have 
seen  on  several  occasions  fourteen  or  fifteen  in  my  own  birds.  Mr. 
Bult  had  a specimen,  examined  by  Mr.  Yarrell,  with  seventeen  tail- 
feathers.  I had  a with  thirteen,  and  another  with  fourteen 
tail-feathers  ; and  in  a Helmet,  a breed  barely  distinguishable  from 
the  Nun,  I have  counted  fifteen,  and  have  heard  of  otlmr  such 
instances.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Brent  possessed  a Dragon,  which 
during  its  whole  life  never  had  more  than  ten  tail-feathers ; and  one 
of  my  Dragons,  descended  from  Mr.  Brent’s,  had  only  eleven.  I 
have  seen  a Paid-head  Tumbler  with  only  ten ; and  Mr.  Brent 
had  an  Air  - Tumbler  with  the  same  number,  but  another  with 
fourteen  tail-feathers.  Two  of  these  latter  Tumblers,  bred  by  Mr. 
Brent,  were  remarkable, — one  from  having  the  two  central  tail- 
feathers  a little  divergent,  and  the  other  from  having  the  two  outer 
feathers  longer  by  three-eighths  of  an  inch  than  the  others  ; so  that 
in  both  cases  the  tail  exhibited  a tendency,  but  in  different  ways,  to 
become  forked.  And  this  shows  us  how  a swallow-tailed  breed, 
like  that  described  by  Bechstein,  might  have  been  formed  by  careful 
selection. 

With  respect  to  the  primary  wing-feathers,  the  number  in  the 
Columbidae,  as  far  as  I can  find  out,  is  always  nine  or  ten.  In  the 
rock-pigeon  it  is  ten ; but  I have  seen  no  less  than  eight  short-faced 
Tumblers  with  only  nine  primaries,  and  the  occurrence  of  this 
number  has  been  noticed  by  fanciers,  owing  to  ten  primaries  of 
a white  colour  being  one  of  the  points  in  Short-faced  Paldhead- 
Tumblers.  Mr.  Brent,  however,  had  an  Air-Tumbler  (not  short- 
faced) which  had  in  both  wings  eleven  primaries.  Mr.  Corker,  the 
eminent  breeder  of  prize  Carriers,  assures  me  that  some  of  his  birds 
had  eleven  primaries  in  both  wings.  I have  seen  eleven  in  one 
wing  in  two  Pouters.  I have  been  assured  by  three  fanciers  that 
they  have  seen  twelve  in  Scanderoons ; but  as  Neumeister  asserts 
that  in  the  allied  Florence  Runt  the  middle  flight-feather  is  often 
double,  the  number  twelve  may  have  been  caused  by  two  of  the  ten 
primaries  having  each  two  shafts  to  a single  feather.  The  secondary 

ing-feathers  are  difficult  to  count,  but  the  number  seems  to  vary 
from  twelve  to  fifteen.  The  length  of  the  wing  and  tail  relatively 
to  the  body,  and  of  the  wings  to  the  tail,  certainly  varies ; I have 
esix)cially  noticed  this  in  Jacobins.  In  Mr.  Bult’s  magnificent  col- 


‘ Coup-d’oeil  sur  TOrdre  des  Pi- 
geons,’ par  C.  L.  Bonaparte  (‘  Comptes 
Rendus’),  1854-55.  Mr.  Blyth,  in 
‘ Annals  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol.  xix.,  1847, 
p.  41,  mentions,  as  a very  singular 
fact,  “ that  of  the  two  species  of 


Ectopistes,  which  are  nearly  allied  to 
each  ether,  one  should  have  fourteen 
tail-feathers,  while  the  other,  the 
passenger  pigeon  of  North  America, 
should  possess  but  the  usual  number 
— twelve.” 


168 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chai’,  V 


lection  of  Ponters,  the  wings  and  tail  varied  greatly  in  length  ; and 
were  sometimes  so  much  elongated  that  the  birds  could  hardly  play 
upright.  In  the  relative  length  of  the  few  first  primaries  I have 
observed  only  a slight  degree  of  variability.  Mr.  Brent  informs  me 
that  he  has  observed  the  shape  of  the  hrst  feather  to  vary  very 
slightly.  But  the  variation  in  these  latter  points  is  extremely  slight 
compared  with  the  differences  which  may  be  observed  in  the  natural 
species  of  the  Columbidse. 

In  the  beak  I have  seen  very  considerable  differences  in  birds  of 
the  same  breed,  as  in  carefully  bred  Jacobins  and  Trumpeters.  In 
Carriers  there  is  often  a conspicuous  difference  in  the  degree  of 
attenuation  and  curvature  of  the  beak.  So  it  is  indeed  in  many 
breeds : thus  I had  two  strains  of  black  Barbs,  which  evidently 
differed  in  the  curvature  of  the  upper  mandible.  In  width  of  mouth 
I have  found  a great  difference  in  two  Swallows.  In  Fantails  of 
first-rate  merit  I have  seen  some  birds  with  much  longer  and  thinner 
necks  than  in  others.  Other  analogous  facts  could  be  given.  We 
have  seen  that  the  oil-gland  is  aborted  in  all  Fantails  (with  the 
exception  of  the  sub-race  from  Java),  and,  I may  add,  so  hereditary 
is  this  tendency  to  abortion,  that  some,  although  not  all,  of  the 
mongrels  which  I reared  from  the  Faintail  and  Pouter  had  no  oih 
gland  ; in  one  Swallow  out  of  many  which  I have  examined,  and  in 
two  Nuns,  there  was  no  oil-gland. 

The  number  of  the  scutellae  on  the  toes  often  varies  in  the  same 
breed,  and  sometimes  even  differs  on  the  two  feet  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual; the  Shetland  rock-pigeon  has  fifteen  on  the  middle,  and  six 
on  the  hinder  toe;  whereas  I have  seen  a Punt  with  sixteen  on  the 
middle  and  eight  on  the  hind  toe  ; and  a short-faced  Tumbler  with 
only  twelve  and  five  on  these  same  toes.  The  rock-pigeon  has  no 
sensible  amount  of  skin  between  its  toes;  but  I possessed  a Spot 
and  a Nun  with  the  skin  extending  for  a space  of  a quarter  of  an 
inch  from  the  fork,  between  the  two  inner  toes.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  will  hereafter  be  more  fully  shown,  pigeons  with  feathered  feet 
very  generally  have  the  bases  of  their  outer  toes  connected  by  skin. 
I had  a red  Tumbler,  which  had  a coo  unlike  that  of  its  fellows, 
approaching  in  tone  to  that  of  the  Laugher : this  bird  had  the  habit, 
to  a degree  which  I never  saw  equalled  in  any  other  pigeon,  of  often 
walking  with  its  wings  raised  and  arched  in  an  elegant  manner.  1 
need  say  nothing  on  the  great  variability,  in  almost  every  breed,  in 
faze  of  body,  in  colour,  in  the  feathering  of  the  feet,  and  in  the 
feathers  on  the  back  of  the  head  being  reversed.  But  I may  mention 
a remarkable  Tumbler^*  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  which  had 
an  irregular  crest  of  feathers  on  its  head,  somewhat  like  the  tuft  on 
the  head  of  the  Polish  fowl.  Mr.  Bult  reared  a hen  Jacobin  with 
the  feathers  on  the  thigh  so  long  as  to  reach  the  ground,  and  a cock 
having,  but  in  a lesser  degree,  the  same  peculiarity : from  these  two 
birds  he  bred  others  similarly  characterised,  which  were  exhibited 


De.scribeil  and  figured  lu  the  ‘Poultry  Chronicle,’  vol.  iii.,  1855,  p.  8‘^ 


CUAI-.  V. 


SINGULAR  VARIATIONS. 


169 


at  the  Pliiloperisteron  Soc.  I bred  a mongrel  pigeon  which  had 
fibrous  feathers,  and  the  wing  and  tail-feathers  so  short  and  imper- 
fect that  the  bird  could  not  fly  even  a foot  in  height. 

'Jfliere  are  many  singular  and  inherited  peculiarities  in  the 
pi  umage  of  pigeons : thus  Almond-Tumblers  do  not  acquire 
their  perfect  mottled  feathers  until  they  have  moulted  three 
or  four  times : the  Kite  Tumbler  is  at  first  brindled  black 
and  red  with  a barred  appearance,  but  when  “ it  throws  its 
nest  feathers  it  becomes  almost  black,  generally  with  a bluish 
tail,  and  a reddish  colour  on  the  inner  webs  of  the  primary 
wing-feathers.”^®  Neumeister  describes  a breed  of  a black 
colour  with  white  bars  on  the  wing  and  a white  crescent- 
shaped mark  on  the  breast ; these  marks  are  generally  rusty- 
red  before  the  fii’st  moult,  but  after  the  third  or  fourth  moult 
they  undergo  a change ; the  wing-feathers  and  the  crown  of 
the  head  likewise  then  become  white  or  grey.^® 

It  is  an  important  fact,  and  I believe  there  is  hardly  an 
exception  to  the  rule,  that  the  e>2recial  characters  for  which 
each  breed  is  valued  are  eminently  variable : thus,  in  the 
Fan  tail,  the  number  and  direction  of  the  tail-feathers,  the 
carriage  of  the  body,  and  the  degree  of  trembling  are  all 
highly  variable  points ; in  Pouters,  the  degree  to  which  they 
2^out,  and  the  shape  of  their  inflated  crops ; in  the  Carrier, 
the  length,  narrowness,  and  curvature  of  the  beak,  and  the 
amount  of  v/attle ; in  Short-faced  Tumblers,  the  shortness  of 
the  beak,  the  prominence  of  the  forehead,  and  general 
carriage,®^  and  in  the  Almond-Tumbler  the  colour  of  the 
plumage;  in  common  Tumblers,  the  manner  of  tumbling; 
in  the  Barb,  the  breadth  and  shortness  of  the  beak  and  the 
amount  of  eye- wattle  ; in  hunts,  the  size  of  body ; in  Turbits 
the  frill ; and  lastly  in  d’rumpeters,  the  cooing,  as  well  as 
the  size  of  the  tuft  of  feathers  over  the  nostrils.  These, 
which  are  the  distinctive  and  selected  characters  of  the  several 
breeds,  are  all  eminently  variable. 

There  is  another  interesting  fact  with  respect  to  tlie 

29  ‘Thp  Pigeon  Book,’  by  Mr.  B,  P.  ‘A  Treatise  on  the  Almond -Tum- 

Erent,  1859,  p,  41.  bier,  by  J.  M.  Eaton,  1852,  p.  8,  cl 

‘ Dm  ctaarh'ilsigo  Taiibe.  Das  passim. 

Gau^e,  &c.,’  s.  21,  tab.  i.  tig.  4. 


170 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


ClIAl>.  V 


characters  of  the  several  breeds,  namely,  that  they  are  often 
most  strongly  displayed  in  the  male  bird.  In  Carriers,  when 
the  males  and  females  are  exhibited  in  separate  pens,  the 
wattle  is  plainly  seen  to  be  much  more  developed  in  the 
males,  though  I have  seen  a hen  Carrier  belonging  to  Mr. 
Haynes  heavily  wattled.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that, 
in  twenty  Barbs  in  Mr.  P.  H.  Jones’s  possession,  the  males 
had  generally  the  largest  eye-wattles ; Mr.  Esquilant  also 
believes  in  this  rule,  but  Mr.  H.  Weir,  a first-rate  judge, 
entertains  some  doubt  on  the  subject.  Male  Pouters  distend 
their  crops  to  a much  greater  size  than  do  the  females ; I 
have,  however,  seen  a hen  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Evans 
which  pouted  excellently  ; but  this  is  an  unusual  circumstance. 
Mr.  Harrison  Weir,  a successful  breeder  of  prize  Fantails, 
informs  me  that  his  male  birds  often  have  a greater  number 
of  tail-fesbthers  than  the  females.  Mr.  Eaton  asserts  that 
if  a cock  and  hen  Tumbler  were  of  equal  merit,  the  hen  would 
be  worth  double  the  money ; and  as  pigeons  always  pair,  so 
that  an  equal  number  of  both  sexes  is  necessary  for  repro- 
duction, this  seems  to  show  that  high  merit  is  rarer  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male.  In  the  development  of  the  frill  in 
Turbits,  of  the  hood  in  Jacobins,  of  the  tuft  in  Trumpeters, 
of  tumbling  in  Tumblers,  there  is  no  difference  between  the 
males  and  females.  I may  here  add  a rather  different  case, 
namely,  the  existence  in  France  of  a wine-coloured  variety 
of  the  Pouter,  in  which  the  male  is  generally  chequered  with 
black,  whilst  the  female  is  never  so.  chequered.  Dr.  Chapuis 
also  remarks  that  in  certain  light-coloured  pigeons  the 
males  have  their  feathers  striated  with  black,  and  these  strite 
increase  in  size  at  each  moult,  so  that  the  male  ultimately 
becomes  spotted  with  black.  With  Garners,  the  wattle,  both 


A Treatise,  &c.,  p.  10. 

Boitard  and  Corbie",  ‘ Les  Pigeons,’ 
&c.,  1824,  p.  173. 

‘Le  Pigeon  Voyageur  Beige,* 
1865,  p.  87.  I have  given  in  my 
‘ Descent  of  Man  ’ (6th  edit.  p.  466) 
some  curious  cases,  on  the  authority 
of  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  of  silver-coloured 
(i.  e.  very  pale  blue)  birds  being 


generally  females,  and  of  the  ease 
with  which  a race  thus  characterised 
could  be  produced.  Bonizzi  (see 
* Variazioni  dei  Columbi  domestic! 
Padova,  1873)  states  that  certain 
coloured  spots  are  often  different  in 
the  two  sexes,  and  the  certain  tints 
are  commoner  in  females  than  in  male 
pigeons. 


CilAV.  V. 


OSTEOLOGIAL  DIPFEEENCES. 


171 


on  the  beak  and  round  the  eyes,  and  with  Barbs  chat  round 
the  eyes,  goes  on  increasing  with  age.  This  augmentation 
of  character  with  advancing  age,  and  more  especially  the 
difference  between  the  males  and  females  in  the  above- 
mentioned  several  respects,  are  remarkable  facts,  for  tiierf; 
is  no  sensible  difference  at  any  age  between  the  two  sexes 
in  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon  ; and  not  often  any  strongly 
marked  difference  throughout  the  family  of  the  Columbidai.^= 

Osteological  Characters. 

Ill  the  skeletons  of  the  various  breeds  there  is  much  varia- 
bility ; and  though  certain  differences  occur  frequently,  and 
others  rarely,  in  certain  breeds,  yet  none  can  be  said  to  be 
absolutely  characteristic  of  any  breed.  Considering  that 
strongly-marked  domestic  races  have  been  formed  chiefly  by 
man’s  selection,  we  ought  not  to  expect  to  find  great  and 
constant  differences  in  the  skeleton  ; for  fanciers  neither  see, 
nor  do  they  care  for,  modifications  of  structure  in  the  internal 
framework.  Nor  ought  we  to  expect  changes  in  the  skeletons 
from  changed  habits  of  life ; as  every  facility  is  given  to  the 
most  distinet  breeds  to  follow  the  same  habits,  and  the  much 
modified  races  are  never  allowed  to  wander  abroad  and 
procure  their  own  food  in  various  ways.  Moreover,  I find, 
on  comparing  the  skeletons  of  Coluyiiha  livia,  oenas,  palu7nbus, 
and  turtur,  which  are  ranked  by  all  systematists  in  two  or 
three  distinct  though  allied  genera,  that  the  differences  are 
extremely  slight,  certainly  less  than  between  the  skeletons 
of  some  of  the  most  distinct  domestic  breeds.  How  far  the 
skeleton  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon  is  constant  1 have  had  no 
means  of  judging,  as  I have  examined  only  two. 

Skull. — The  individual  bones,  especially  those  at  the  base,  do  not 
differ  in  shape.  But  the  whole  skull,  in  its  proi)ortions,  outline, 
and  relative  direction  of  the  bones,  differs  greatly  in  some  of  the 
breeds,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  figures  of  (a)  the  wild 


Prof.  A.  yewton  (‘  Proc.  Zoolog, 
Soc.,’  1865,  p.  716)  remarks  that  he 
knows  no  species  which  present  any 
remarkable  sexual  distinction  ; but  Mr. 
Wallace  iufonri'i  me,  that  in  the  sub- 


family of  the  Treronidae  the  sexes  often 
differ  considerably  in  colour.  See 
also  on  sexual  differences  in  theColum- 
bida?,  Gould,  ‘Handbook  to  the  Birds 
of  Australia,’  vol.  ii.  pp.  lO'd-i-ilh 


172 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  .* 


Chap.  V. 


rock-pigeon,  (b)  the  Short-faced  Tumbler,  (c)  the  English  Carrier, 
and  (d)  the  Bagadotten  Carrier  (of  Neumeister),  all  drawn  of  the 
natural  size  and  viewed  laterally.  In  the  Carrier,  besides  the  elon- 


A 


Fig.  24. — Skulls  of  Pigeons  vipwed  laterally,  of  natural  size.  A.  Wiiol  Kock-pigeon.  Columba 
licia.  B.  Short-faced  Tumbler.  C.  English  Carrier.  D.  Bagadotten  Carrier. 

gation  of  the  bones  of  the  face,  the  space  between  the  orbits  is  pro- 
portionally a little  narrower  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  the  Baga- 
dotten the  upper  mandible  is  remarkably  arched,  and  the  premaxil- 
lary bones  are  proportionally  broader  In  the  Short-faced  Tumbler 


Chap.  Y. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFEKENCES. 


173 


the  skull  IS  more  globular : all  the  bones  of  the  face  are  much 
shortened,  and  the  front  of  the  skull  and  descending  nasal  bones  are 
almost  perpendicular : the  maxillo-jugal  arch  and  premaxillary 
bones  form  an  almost  straight  line;  the  space  between  the  pro- 
minent edges  of  the  eye-orbits  is  depressed.  In  the  Barb  the  pre- 
maxillary bones  are  much  shortened,  and  their  anterior  portion  is 
thicker  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  as  is  the  lower  part  of  the  nasal 
bone.  In  two  Nuns  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries, 
near  their  tips,  were  somewhat  attenuated,  and  in  these  birds,  as 
well  as  in  some  others,  for  instance  in  the  Spot,  the  occipital  crest 
over  the  foramen  was  considerably  more  prominent  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon. 

In  the  lower  jaw,  the  articular  surface  is  proper tionably  smaller 
in  many  breeds  than  in  the  rock-pigeon ; and  the  vertical  diameter. 


B 

Fig.  25. — Lower  jaws,  seen  from  above,  of  natural  size.  A.  Bock-pigeon.  B.  Runt. 

C.  Barb. 

more  especially  of  the  outer  part  of  the  articular  surface,  is  con- 
siderably shorter.  May  not  this  be  accounted  for  by  the  lessened 
use  of  the  jaws,  owing  to  nutritious  food  having  been  given  during 
a long  period  to  all  highly  improved  pigeons  ? In  Bunts,  Carriers, 
and  Barbs  (and  in  a lesser  degree  in  several  breeds),  the  whole  side 
of  the  jaw  near  the  articular  end  is  beut  inwards  in  a highly  re- 
markable manner ; and  the  superior  margin  of  the  ramus,  beyond 
the  middle,  is  reflexed  in  an  equally  remarkable  manner,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  accompanying  figures,  in  comparison  with  the  jaw  of 
the  rock-pigeon.  This  reflection  of  the  upper  margin  of  the  lower 
jaw  is  plainly  connected  with  the  singularly  wide  gape  of  the 
mouth,  as  has  been  described  in  Bunts,  Carriers,  and  Barbs.  The 
reflection  is  well  shown  in  fig.  26  of  the  head  of  a Bunt  seen  from 
above;  here  a wide  open  space  may  be  observed  on  each  side, 
between  the  edges  of  the  lower  jaw  and  of  the  premaxillary  bones. 


174 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V, 


In  the  rock-pigeon,  , and  in  several  domestic  breeds,  the  edges  of  the 
lower  jaw  on  each  side  come  close  up  to  the  premaxillary  bones,  so 


Fig.  21. — Laterwl  view  of  jaws,  of  natural  size. 

A.  Eock-pigeon.  B.  Short-laeed  Tumbler.  C. 
Bagadoiteu  Carrier. 

that  no  open  space  is  left.  The  degree  of 
downward  curvature  of  the  distal  half  of 
the  lower  jaw  also  differs  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  in  some  breeds,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  drawings  (fig.  a)  of  the  rock- 
Fig.  26.--S’cuii  seen  pjgeon,  (b)  of  the  Shoi't-faced  Tumbler, 

siiowing  the  reflexed  margin  and  (c)  ot  the  Bagadotten  Carrier  of  Neu- 
of  the  distal  portion  of  ihe  meister.  In  some  Eimts  the  s.vmphysis  of 
lower  jaw.  lower  jaw  is  remarkably  solid.  Jjo  one 

would  readily  have  believed  that  jaws  differing  in  the  several 
above-specified  points  so  greatly  could  have  belonged  to  the  same 
species. 

Vertehrce.—Ml  the  breeds  have  twelve  cervical  vertebrae.^®  But 
in  a Bussorah  Carrier  from  India  the  twelfth  vertebra  carried  a 
small  rib,  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a perfect  double 
articulation. 

^ The  dorsal  vertebras  are  always  eight.  In  the  rock-pigeon  all 
eight  bear  ribs ; the  eight  rib  being  very  thin,  and  the  seventh 
having  no  process.  In  Pouters  all  the  ribs  are  extremely  broad, 
eight  bear  ribs;  the  eighth  rib  being  very  thin  and  the  seventh 
having  no  process.  In  Pouters  all  the  ribs  are  extremely  broad, 
and,  in  three  out  of  four  skeletons  examined  by  me,  the  eighth  rib 
was  twice  or  even  thrice  as  broad  as  in  the  rock-pigeon ; and  the 


I am  not  sure  that  I have  de- 
signated the  different  kinds  of  vertebrae 
correctly  : but  I observe  that  different 
anatomists  follow  in  this  respect  dif- 


ferent rules,  and,  as  I use  the  same 
terms  in  the  comparison  of  all  the 
skeletons,  this,  I hope,  will  net 
signify. 


Uhap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICA.L  DIFFERENCES. 


175 


seventh  pair  had  distinct  processes.  In  many  breeds  there  are 
only  seven  ribs,  as  in  seven  out  of  eight  skeletons  of  various 
Tumblers,  and  in  several  skeletons  of  Fantails,  Turbits  and  Nuns. 

In  all  these  breeds  the  seventh  pair  was  very  small,  and  was 
destitute  of  processes,  in  which  respect  it  differed  from  the  same 
rib  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  one  Tumbler,  and  in  the  Bussorah 
Carrier,  even  the  sixth  pair  had  no  process.  The  hypapophysis  ol 
the  second  dorsal  vertebra  varies  much  in  development;  being 
sometimes  (as  in  several,  but  not  all  Tumblers)  nearly  as  prominent 
as  that  of  the  third  dorsal  vertebra;  and  the  two  hypapophyses 
together  tend  to  form  an  ossified  arch.  The  development  of  the 
arch,  formed  by  the  hypapophyses  of  the  third  and  fourth  dorsal 
vertebrm,  also  varies  considerably,  as  does  the  size  of  the  hypapo- 
physis of  the  fifth  vertebra. 

The  rock-pigeon  has  twelve  sacral  vertebrae ; but  these  vary  in 
number,  relative  size,  and  distinctness,  in  the  different  breeds.  In 
Pouters,  with  their  elongated  bodies,  there  are  thirteen  or  even 
fourteen,  and,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  an  additional  number 
of  caudal  vertebrie.  In  Eunts  and  Carriers  there  is  generally  the 
proper  number,  namely  twelve ; but  in  one  Eunt,  and  in  the  Bussorah 
Carrier,  there  were  only  eleven.  In  Tumblers  there  are  either  eleven, 
or  twelve,  or  thirteen  sacral  vertebrae. 

The  caudal  vertebrae  are  seven  in  number  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In 
Fantails,  which  have  their  tails  so  largely  developed,  there  are 
eight  or  nine,  and  apparently  in  one  case  ten,  and  they  are  a little 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  and  their  shape  varies  considerably. 
Pouters,  also,  have  eight  or  nine  caudal  vertebrae.  I have  seen  eight 
in  a Nun  and  Jacobin.  Tumblers,  though  such  small  birds,  always 
have  the  normal  number  seven ; as  have  Carriers,  with  one  exception, 
in  which  there  were  only  six. 

The  following  table  will  serve  as  a summary,  and  will  show  the 
most  remarkable  deviations  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  and  ribs 
which  I have  observed : — ■ 


Rock  Pigeon. 

Pouter,  from 
Mr.  Bult. 

Tumbler, 
Dutch  Roller. 

Bussorah 

Carrier. 

Cervical  V ertebrso 

12 

12 

12 

12 

The  12th  bore 
a small  rib. 

Dorsal  Vertebrse 

8 

8 

i ^ 

8 

„ Ribs 

8 

The  6th  Pair  with 
processes,  the  7th 
pair  witiiout  a 
process. 

8 

The  6th  and 
7th  pair  with 
processes. 

7 

The  6th  and 
7th  pair  with- 
out processes. 

7 

The  6th  and 
7th  pair  with- 
out processes. 

Sacral  Vertebrse 

12 

14 

11 

11 

Caudal  Vertebrae 

7 

8 or  9 

7 

7 

Totfd  Vertebi-ae 

31) 

42  or  43 

38 

SS 

176 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V. 


Fig.  28.— Scapula,  of  natural, 
size.  A.  Rock-pigeon.  R. 
Short-faced  Tumbler. 


The  pelvU  differs  very  little  in  any  breed.  The  anterior  margin 
of  the  ilium;  however,  is  sometimes  a little  more  equally  rounded 
on  both  sides  than 
in  the  rock- pigeon. 

The  ischium  is  also 
frequently  rather 
more  elongated.  The 
obturator-notch  is 
sometimes,  as  in 
many  Tumblers,  less 
developed  than  in 
the  rock-pigeon.  The 
ridges  on  the  ilium 
are  very  prominent 
in  most  Bunts. 

In  the  bones  of  the 
extremities  I could 
detect  no  difference, 
except  in  their  pro- 
portional lengths ; 
for  instance,  the 
metatarsus  in  a 
Pouter  was  1-65  inch,  and  in  a Short-faced 
Tumbler  only  '95  in  length;  and  this  is  a 
gi-eater  difference  than  would  naturally  follow 
from  their  differently-sized  bodies ; but  long 
legs  in  the  Pouter,  and  small  feet  in  the 
Tumbler,  are  selected  points  In  some 
Pouters  the  scapula  is  rather  straighter,  and 
in  some  Tumblers  it  is  straighter,  with  the 
apex  less  elongated,  than  in  the  rock-pigeon ; 
in  the  woodcut,  fig.  28,  the  scapulae  of  the 
rock-pigeon  (a),  and  of  a short-faced  Tumbler 
(b),  are  given.  The  processes  at  the  summit 
of  the  coracoid,  which  receive  the  extremities 
of  the  furculurn,  form  a more  perfect  cavity  in 
some  Tumblers  than  in  the  rock-pigeon : in 
Pouters  these  processes  are  larger  and  dif- 
ferently shaped,  and  the  exterior  angle  of 
the  extremity  of  the  coracoid,  which  is 
articulated  to  the  sternum,  is  sqnarer. 

The  two  arms  of  the  furculurn  in  Pouters 
diverge  less,  proportionally  to  their  length, 
than  in  the  rock-pigeon  ; and  the  symphysis 
is  more  solid  and  pointed.  In  Fantails  the  , 

degree  of  divergence  of  the  two  arms  varies  ^^S;29.-^-uTcuia  of  nam^^ 

• 111  T z:  on  j Size.  A.  SLort-facetl  i um- 

in  a remarkable  manner.  In  fig.  29,  b and  bier,  b and  c Fantaii.  u. 

c represent  the  furcula  of  two  Fantails ; and  Pouter. 

it  will  be  seen  that  the  divergence  in  b is  rather  less  even  than  in  the 


CtlAP.  V. 


CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH. 


177 


fTirciilnm  of  the  short-faced,  small-sized  Tumbler  (a),  whereas  the 
divergence  in  c equals  that  in  a rock-pigeon,  or  in  the  Pouter  (n), 
though  the  latter  is  a much  larger  bird.  The  extremities  of  the  furcu- 
lum,  where  articulated  to  the  coracoids,  vary  considerably  in  outline. 

In  the  sternum  the  ditferences  in  form  are  slight,  except  in  the 
size  and  outline  of  the  perforations,  which,  both  in  the  larger  and 
lesser  sized  breeds,  are  sometimes  small.  These  perforations,  also, 
are  sometimes  either  nearly  circular,  or  elongated  as  is  often  the 
case  with  Carriers.  The  postei'ior  perforations  occasionally  are  not 
complete,  being  left  open  posteriorly.  The  marginal  apophyses 
forming  the  anterior  perforations  vary  greatly  in  development. 
The  degree  of  convexity  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  sternnm  difhrs 
much,  being  sometimes  almost  perfectly  flat.  The  manubrium  is 
rather  more  prominent  in  some  individuals  than  in  others,  and  the 
pore  immediately  under  it  varies  greatly  in  size. 

Correlation  of  Growth. — By  this  term  I mean  that  the  whole 
organisation  is  so  connected,  that  when  one  part  varies,  other 
parts  vary ; but  which  of  two  correlated  variations  ought  to  be 
looked  at  as  the  cause  and  which  as  the  effect,  or  -whether  both 
result  from  some  common  cause,  we  can  seldom  or  never  tell. 
T’he  point  of  interest  for  us  is  that,  when  fanciers,  by  the  con- 
tinued selection  of  slight  variations,  have  largely  modified  one 
part,  they  often  unintentionally  produce  other  modifications. 
For  instance,  the  beak  is  readily  acted  on  by- selection,  and, 
with  its  increased  or  diminished  length,  the  tongue  increases 
or  diminishes,  but  not  in  due  proportion  ; for,  in  a Barb  and 
Short-faced  Tumbler,  both  of  which  have  very  short  beaks,  the 
tongue,  taking  the  rock-pigeon  as  the  standard  of  comparison, 
was  proportionally  not  shortened  enough,  whilst  in  two 
Carriers  and  in  a Runt  the  tongue,  proportionally  with  the 
beak,  was  not  lengthened  enough,  thus,  in  a first-rate  English 
Carrier,  in  which  the  beak  from  the  tip  to  the  feathered  base 
was  exactly  thrice  as  long  as  in  a first-rate  Short-faced 
Tumbler,  the  tongue  was  only  a little  more  than  twice  as 
long.  But  the  tongue  varies  in  length  independently  of  the 
beak  : thus  in  a Carrier  with  a beak  1-2  inch  in  length,  the 
tongue  was  '67  in  length  : whilst  in  a Runt  which  equalled 
the  Carrier  in  length  of  body  and  in  stretch  of  wings  from 
tip  to  tip,  the  beak  wms  '92  whilst  the  tongue  was  *73  of  an 
inch  in  length,  so  that  the  tongue  was  actually  longer  than 
in  the  carrier  with  its  long  beak.  The  tongue  of  the  Runt 
was  also  very  broad  at  the  root.  Of  two  Runts,  one  had  its 

13 


178 


DOMESTIC  riGEONS  : 


CiiAr.  V 


beak  lonc^or  by  *23  of  an  incli,  whilst  its  tongue  was  shorter 
by  *14  than  in  the  other. 

With  the  increased  or  diminished  length  of  the  beak  the 
length  of  the  slit  forming  the  external  orifice  of  the  nostiils 
varies,  but  not  in  due  proportion,  for,  talcing  the  rock-pigeon 
as  the  standard,  the  orifice  in  a Short-faced  Tumbler  was  not 
shortened  in  due  proportion  with  its  very  short  beak.  On 
the  other  hand  (and  this  could  not  have  been  anticipated), 
the  orifice  in  three  English  Carriers,  in  the  Bagadotten 
Carrier,  and  in  a Runt  (pigeon  cygne),  was  longer  by  above 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  than  would  follow  from  the  length  of 
the  beak  proportionally  with  that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  In 
one  Carriei-  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils  was  thrice  as  long  as  in 
the  rock-pigeon,  though  in  body  and  length  of  beak  this  bii'd 
was  not  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  rock-pigeon.  This 
greatly  increased  length  of  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils  seems  to 
stand  partly  in  correlation  with  the  enlargement  of  the 
wattled  skin  on  the  upper  mandible  and  over  the  nostrils; 
and  this  is  a character  which  is  selected  by  fanciers.  So 
again,  the  broad,  naked,  and  wattled  skin  round  the  eyes  of 
Carriers  and  Barbs  is  a selected  character ; and  in  obvious 
correlation  with  this,  the  eyelids,  measured  longitudinally, 
are  proportionally  more  than  double  the  length  of  those  ol 
the  rock -pigeon. 

The  great  difference  (see  woodcut  No.  27)  in  the  curvature 
of  the  lower  jaw  in  the  rock -pigeon,  the  Tumbler,  and  Baga- 
dotten Carrier,  stands  in  obvious  relation  to  the  curvature  of 
the  upper  jaw,  and  more  especially  to  the  angle  formed  by 
the  maxillo-jugal  arch  with  the  premaxillar}^  bones.  But  in 
Carriers,  Runts,  and  Barbs  the  singular  reflexion  of  the  upper 
margin  of  the  middle  part  of  the  lower  jaw  (see  woodcut 
No.  25)  is  not  strictly  correlated  with  the  width  or  divergence 
(as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  woodcut  No.  26)  of  the  premaxillary 
brnes,  but  with  the  breadth  of  the  horny  and  soft  parts  of  the 
upper  mandible,  which  are  always  overlapped  by  the  edges  of 
the  lower  mandible. 

In  Pouters,  the  elongation  of  the  b ffy  is  a selected  cha- 
racter, amd  the  ribs,  as  we  have  seen,  have  generally  become 
very  broad,  with  the  seventh  pair  furnished  with  processes ; the 


Chap.  V. 


CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH. 


i7y 

sacral  and  caudal  vertebra3  have  been  augmented  in  number; 
the  sternum  has  likewise  increased  in  length  (but  not  in  the 
depth  of  the  crest)  by  *4  of  an  inch  more  than  would  follow 
from  the  greater  bulk  of  the  body  in  comparison  with  that 
of  the  rock-pigeon.  In  Fantails,  the  length  and  number  of 
the  caudal  vertebrae  have  increased.  Hence,  during  the 
gradual  progress  of  variation  and  selection,  the  internal  bony 
framework  and  the  external  shape  of  the  body  have  been,  to 
a certain  extent,  modified  in  a correlated  manner. 

Although  the  wings  and  tail  often  vary  in  length  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  tliat 
they  generall}^  tend  to  become  elongated  or  shortened  in 
correlation.  This  is  well  seen  in  Jacobins,  and  still  more 
plainly  in  Emits,  some  varieties  of  which  have  their  wings 
and  tail  of  great  length,  whilst  others  have  both  very  short. 
With  Jacobins,  the  remai'kable  length  of  the  tail  and  wing- 
feathers  is  not  a character  which  is  intentionally  selected  by 
fanciers ; but  fanciers  have  been  trying  for  centuries,  at  least 
since  the  year  1600,  to  increase  the  lengtli  of  the  reversed 
feathers  on  the  neck,  so  that  the  hood  may  more  completely 
enclose  the  head ; and  it  may  be  suspected  that  the  increased 
length  of  The  wing  and  tail-feathers  stand  in  correlation  with 
the  increased  length  of  the  neck- feathers.  Short-faced  Tumblers 
have  short  wings  in  nearly  due  proportion  wuth  the  reduced 
size  of  their  bodies ; but  it  is  remarkable,  seeing  that  the 
number  of  the  primary  wing-feathers  is  a constant  character 
in  most  birds,  that  these  Tumblers  generally  have  only  nine 
instead  of  ten  primaries.  I have  myself  observed  this  in 
eight  birds ; and  the  Original  Columbarian  Society  reduced 
the  standard  for  Bald-head  Tumblers  from  ten  to  nine  white 
tlight-feathers,  thinking  it  unfair  that  a bird  which  had  only 
nine  feathers  should  be  disqualified  for  a prize  because  it  had 
not  ten  white  flight-feathers.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Carriers 
and  hunts,  which  have  large  bodies  and  long  wings,  eleven 
primary  feathers  have  occasionally  been  observed. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  informed  me  of  a (mrious  and  inexpli- 
cable case  of  correlation,  namely,  that  3^oung  pigeons  of  all 
breeds  which  when  mature  become  white,  yellow,  silver  (^.e., 
extremel}"  pale  blue),  or  dun-coloured,  are  born  almost  naked , 
J.  M.  Eaton’s  Treatise,  edit.  1858,  p.  78. 


ISO 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V. 


whereas  pigeons  of  other  eolonrs  are  horn  well-clothed  witli 
down.  Mr.  Esqnilant,  however,  has  observed  tliat  yonng 
dnn  Carriers  are  not  so  hare  as  young  dun  Barhs  and  Tuinhlers, 
Mr.  ']’'egetmeier  has  seen  two  young  birds  in  the  same  nest, 
produced  from  differently  coloured  parents,  which  differed 
greatly  in  the  degree  to  which  they  were  at  first  clothed  with 
down. 

1 have  observed  another  case  of  correlation  which  at  first 
sight  appears  quite  inexplicable,  but  on  which,  as  we  shall 
see  in  a future  chapter,  some  light  can  be  thrown  by  the  law 
of  homologous  parts  varying  in  the  same  manner.  The  case 
is,  that,  when  the  feet  are  much  feathered,  the  roots  of  the 
feathers  are  connected  by  a web  of  skin,  and  apparently  in  cor- 
relation with  this  the  two  outer  toes  become  connected  for  a 
considerable  space  by  skin.  I have  observed  this  in  very 
many  specimens  of  Pouters,  TrumjAeters,  Swallows,  Eoller- 
tumblers  (likewise  observed  in  this  breed  by  Mr.  -Brent),  and 
in  a lesser  degree  in  other  feather-footed  pigeons. 

The  feet  of  the  smaller  and  larger  breeds  are  of  course 
much  smaller  or  larger  than  those  of  the  rock- pigeon ; but 
the  scutellaj  or  scales  covering  the  toes  and  tarsi  have  not 
only  decreased  or  increased  in  size,  but  likewise  in  number. 
To  give  a single  instance,  1 have  counted  eight  scutelhe  on  the 
hind  toe  of  a Eunt,  and  only  five  on  that  of  a Short-faced 
Tumbler.  With  birds  in  a state  of  nature  the  number  of  the 
scutellai  on  the  feet  is  usually  a constant  character.  The 
length  of  the  feet  and  the  length  of  the  beak  apparently 
stand  in  correlation ; but  as  disuse  apparently  has  affected 
the  size  of  the  feet,  this  case  may  come  under  the  following 
discussion. 

On  the  Effects  of  Disuse. — In  the  following  discussion  on  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  feet,  sternum,  furculum,  scapuhe, 
and  wings,  I may  premise,  in  order  to  give  some  confidence  to 
the  reader,  that  all  my  measurements  were  made  in  the  same 
manner,  and  that  they  were  made  without  the  least  intention 
of  applying  them  to  the  following  purpose. 

I measured  most  of  the  birds  which  came  into  my  possession,  from 
the  feathered  base  of  the  beak  (the  length  of  beak  itself  being  so 
variable)  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  to  the  oil-gland,  but  un- 
fortunately (except  in  a few  cases)  not  to  the  root  of  tlie  tail ; J 


Chap.  V 


ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE. 


181 


measured  each  bird  from  the  extreme  tip  to  tip  of  wing ; and  the 
length  of  the  terminal  folded  part  of  the  wing^  from  the  extremity 
of  the  primaries  to  the  joint  of  the  radius,  I measured  the  feet 
without  the  claws,  from  the  end  of  the  middle  toe  to  the  end  of 
the  hind  toe;  and  the  tarsus  and  middle  toe  together.  I have 
taken  in  every  case  the  mean  measurement  of  two  wild  rock-pigeons 
from  the  Shetland  Islands,  as  the  standard  of  comparison.  The 
following  table  shows  the  actual  length  of  the  feet  in  each  bird  ; 

Table.  I. 

Pigeons  toiili  their  healcs  generally  shorter  than  that  of  the  Rock-pigeon, 
proportionally  to  the  size  of  their  bodies. 


Name  of  Breed. 

Actual 

length 

of 

Feet 

Difference  between 
actual  and  calculated 
length  of  feet,  in 
proportion  to  length  oi 
feet  and  size  of  bodj 
in  the  Rock-pigeon. 

Wild  rook-pigeoii  (mean  measurement')  .. 

2-02 

Too  short 

t'y 

Too  long 
by 

Short-faced  Tumbler,  bald  head 

1-57 

O'll 

„ „ almond 

1-60 

0-16 

Tumbler,  red  magpie 

1*75 

0-19 

„ l ed  common  (l)y  standard  to  end 

of  tail) 

1-85 

0-07 

„ common  bald-head  

1-85 

0-18 

• „ roller 

1*80 

0-06 

Turbit 

1-75 

0-17 



1-80 

O-Oi 

• • 

1-84 

0 15 

Jacobin 

1-90 

0-02 

Trumpeter,  white  

202 

0-00 

„ mottled 

1 95 

0-18 

Fautail  (by  standard  to  end  of  tail) 

1-85 

0 15 

71  51 

1-95 

0*15 

„ crested  var.  „ r 

1-95 

00 

0 0 

Indian  Frill-back  „ .... 

1-80 

0-19 

English  Frill -back  

2*10 

0-03 

N un  . . 

1-82 

0-02 

Laugher  

1 *05 

0-10 

Barb  

2-00 

0-03 

55  

2-00 

o' 03 

Spot  

1-90 

0 02 

51  

0-07 

Swallow,  red  

1-85 

0-18 

„ blue  

200 

o’ 03 

Pouter 

2-42 

O-ll 

„ German  

2-30 

0*09 

Bussorah  Carrier 

2-17 

0 09 

Number  of  specimens 

28 

22 

5 

1 

182 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  V. 


and  the  difftrcnco  between  the  length  which  the  feet  ouglit  to  have 
had  according  to  the  size  of  body  of  each,  in  comparison  with  the 
size  of  body  and  length  of  feet  of  the  rock-pigeon,  calculated  (with 
a few  specified  exceptions)  by  the  standard  of  the  length  of  the  body 
from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland.  I have  preferred  this 
standard,  owing  to  the  variability  of  the  length  of  tail.  But  I have 
made  similar  calculations,  taking  as  the  standard  the  length  from 
tip  to  tip  of  wing,  and  likewise  in  most  cases  from  the  base  of  the 
t)eak  to  the  end  of  the  tail ; and  the  result  has  always  been  closely 
similar.  'To  give  an  example : the  first  bird  in  the  table,  being 
a Short-faced  Tumbler,  is  much  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon,  and 
would  naturally  have  shorter  feet;  but  it  is  found  on  calculation  to 
have  feet  too  short  by  T1  of  an  inch,  in  comparison  with  the  feet  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  body  in  these  two  birds, 
as  measured  from  the  base  of  beak  to  the  oil-gland.  So  again,  when 
this  same  Tumbler  and  the  rock-pigeon  were  compared  by  the  length 
of  their  wings,  or  by  the  extreme  length  of  their  bodies*  the  feet  of 
the  Tumbler  were  likewise  found  to  be  too  short  in  very  nearly  the 
same  proportion.  I am  well  aware  that  the  measurements  pretend 
to  greater  accuracy  than  is  possible,  but  it  was  less  trouble  to  write 
down  the  actual  measurements  given  by  the  compasses  in  each  case 
than  an  approximation. 

Table  II. 


Pigeons  with  their  healis  longer  tltnn  that  of  the  Uorli-pigeon,  'prcrpnvtionalhf 
to  the  size  of  their  Jnulies. 


■Name  of  BreeJ. 

Wild  rock-pigeon  (mean  measurement)  .. 

Actual 

length 

of 

Feet 

2*02 

1 T)ifF»  reiice  tx'tween 

1 actual  atid  calculateJ 
' length  of  feet,  in 
proponion  to  length  of 
feet  and  size  of  body 
in  the  Kock-pigeon. 

Too  short  Too  long 
hy  by 

Carrier 

i 2-60 

0-31 

'2 -GO 

0-25 

, . . . . - . » , ^ . . - , . 

2-tO 

0-21 

„ Dragon  

2-25 

O-OG 

Biiefitdotten  Carrier 

2'80 

j 0-56 

Scanderoon,  white  

2-8G 

I 0-37 

„ Pigeon  cygiie 

2-85 

0 • 29 

Uunt  

2'7o 

! 0-27 

Number  of  specimens 

8 

- 1 

In  these  two  tables  we  see  in  the  first  column  the  actual  length 
of  the  feet  in  thirty-six  birds  belonging  to  various  breeds,  and  in 
the  two  other  columns  we  see  by  how  much  the  feet  are  t(X)  shore 
or  too  long,  according  to  the  size  of  bird,  in  comparison  with  the 
rock-pigeon.  In  the  first  table  twenty-two  specimens  have  tlicir 


Chap.  V. 


ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE. 


183 


fuet  too  short,  on  an  average  by  a little  above  the  tenth  of  an  inch 
(viz.  *107) ; and  five  specimens  have  their  feet  on  an  average  a very 
little  too  long,  namely,  by  *07  of  an  inch.  But  some  of  these  latter 
cases  can  be  explained  ; for  instance,  with  Pouters  the  legs  and  feet 
are  selected  for  length,  and  thus  any  natural  tendency  to  a dimi- 
nution in  the  length  of  the  feet  will  have  been  counteracted.  In 
the  Swallow  and  Barb,  when  the  calculation  was  made  on  any 
standard  of  comparison  besides  the  one  used  (viz.  length  of  body 
from  base  of  beak  to  oil-gland),  the  feet  were  found  to  be  too  small. 

In  the  second  table  we  have  eight  birds,  with  their  beaks  much 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  both  actually  and  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  body,  and  their  feet  are  in  an  equally  marked  manner 
longer,  namely,  in  proportion,  on  an  average  by  *29  of  an  inch.  I 
should  here  state  that  in  Table  I.  there  are  a few  partial  exceptions  to 
the  beak  being  proportionally  shorter  than  in  the  rock- pigeon  : thus 
the  beak  of  the  English  Frill-back  is  just  perceptibly  longer,  and  that 
of  the  Bussorah  Carrier  of  the  same  length  or  slightly  longer,  than  in 
the  rock-pigeon.  The  beaks  of  Spots,  Swallows,  and  Laughers  are 
only  a very  little  shorter,  or  of  the  same  proijortional  length,  but 
slenderer.  Nevertheless,  these  two  tables,  taken  conjointly,  indicate 
])retty  plainly  some  kind  of  correlation  between  the  length  of  the 
l)eak  and  the  size  of  the  feet.  Breeders  of  cattle  and  liorses  believe 
that  there  is  an  analogous  connection  between  the  length  of  the 
limbs  and  head;  they  assert  that  a race-horse  with  the  head  of  a 
dray-horse,  or  a grey-hound  with  the  head  of  a bulldog,  would  be  a 
monstrous  production.  As  fancy  pigeons  are  generally  kept  in 
small  aviaries,  and  are  abundantly  supplied  with  food,  they  must 
walk  about  much  less  than  the  wild  rock-pigeon  ; and  it  may  be 
admitted  as  highly  probable  that  the  reduction  in  the  size  of  the 
feet  in  the  twenty-two  birds  in  the  first  table  has  been  caused  by 
disuse,  and  that  this  reduction  has  acted  by  correlation  on  the 
beaks  of  the  great  majority  of  the  birds  in  Table  I.  When,  on  tho 
other  hand,  the  beak  has  been  much  elongated  by  the  continued 
selection  of  successive  slight  increments  of  length,  the  feet  by  corre- 
lation have  likewise  become  much  elongated  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon,  notwithstanding  their  lessened  use. 

As  I had  taken  measures  from  the  end  of  the  middle  toe  to  the 
heel  of  the  tarsus  in  the  rock-pigeon  and  in  the  above  thirty-six 
birds,  I have  made  calculations  analogous  with  those  above  given, 
and  the  result  is  the  same  — namely,  that  in  the  short-beaked 
breeds,  with  equally  few  exceptions  as  in  the  former  case,  the 
middle  toe  conjointly  with  the  tarsus  has  decreased  in  length ; 
whereas  in  the  long-beaked  breeds  it  lias  increased  in  length, 
though  not  quite  so  uniformly  as  in  the  former  case,  for  the  leg  in 
some  varieties  of  the  Eunt  varies  much  in  length. 

In  an  analogous,  but  converse,  allied  groups,  have  larger  feet.  See 

manner,  certain  natural  groups  of  Prince  Bonaparte’s  ‘ Coup-d’ceil  sur 

the  Columbidas,  from  being  more  ter-  i’Order  des  Pigeons.’ 
restrial  in  their  habits  than  other 


184 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS; 


Chap.  V. 


As  fancy  pigeons  are  generally  confined  in  aviaries  of  moderate 
size,  and  as  even  when  not  confined  they  do  not  search  for  their  own 
food,  they  must  during  many  generations  have  used  their  wings 
incomparably  less  than  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  Hence  it  seemed  to 
mo  probable  that  all  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  subservient  to  flight 
would  be  found  to  be  reduced  in  size.  With  respect  to  the  sternum, 
I have  carefully  measured  its  extreme  length  in  twelve  birds  of 
different  breeds,  and  in  two  wild  rock-pigeons  from  the  Shetland 
Islands.  For  the  proportional  comparison  I have  tried  three 
standards  of  measurement,  with  all  twelve  birds  namely,  the  length 
from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland,  to  the  end  of  the  tail, 
and  from  the  extreme  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  The  result  has  been  in 
each  case  nearly  the  same,  the  sternum  being  invariably  found  to 
be  shorter  than  in  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  I will  give  only  a single 
table,  as  calculated  by  the  standard  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to 
the  oil-gland;  for  the  result  in  this  case  is  nearly  the  mean  between 
the  results  obtained  by  the  two  other  standards. 


Length  of  Sternum. 


Name  of  Breed. 

Actual 

Oength. 

Inches. 

Too 

Short  by 

Name  of  Breed. 

Actual 

Length. 

Inches. 

Too 

Short  by 

Wild  Rock-pigeon 

2 -.55 

..  1 

Barb  

2-3rx 

0-34 

Pied  Scanderoon  .. 

2-80 

0-60 

Nun  

2-27 

0-15 

Bagadotten  Carrier 

2-80 

0-17 

German  Pouter  .. 

2-36 

0 51 

Dragon  ..  ..  ... 

2-4.0 

0-41 

Jacobin 

2-33 

O' 22 

Carrier 

2-75 

0-35 

English  Frill-back 

2-40 

0-43 

Short  faced 'Fumbler 

2-05 

0-28 

1 

IS  wallow 

• 

2-45 

0-17 

This  table  shows  that  in  these  twelve  breeds  the  sternum  is  of 
an  average  one- third  of  an  inch  (exactly  •332)  shorter,  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  their  bodies ; so  that 
the  sternum  has  been  reduced  by  between  one-seventh  and  one- 
eighth  of  its  entire  length ; and  this  is  a considerable  reduction. 

I have  also  measured  in  twenty-one  birds,  including  the  above 
dozen,  the  prominence  of  the  crest  of  the  steruum  relatively  to  its 
length,  independently  of  the  size  of  the  body.  In  two  of  the  twenty- 
one  birds  the  crest  was  prominent  in  the  same  relative  degree  as 
in  the  rock-pigeon;  in  seven  it  was  more  prominent;  but  in  fi\e 
out  of  these  seven,  namely,  in  a Fantail,  two  Scanderoons,  and  two 
English  Carriers,  this  greater  prominence  may  to  a certain  extent 
be  explained,  as  a prominent  breast  is  admired  and  selected  by 
fanciers;  in  the  remaining  twelve  birds  the  prominence  was  less. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  crest  exhibits  a slight,  though  uncertain, 
tendency  to  be  reduced  in  prominence  in  a greater  degree  than  docs 
the  length  of  the  sternum  relatively  to  the  size  of  body,  in  comparison 
with  the  rock-pigeon. 

I have  measured  the  length  of  the  scapula  in  nine  different  large 


Chap.  V. 


ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE. 


185 


and  small-sized  breeds,  and  in  all  the  scapnla  is  proportionally 
shorter  (taking  the  same  standard  as  before)  than  in  the  wild  rock- 
pigeon.  The  reduction  in  length  on  an  average  is  very  nearly  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch,  or  about  one-ninth  of  the  length  of  the  scapula  in 
the  rock-pigeon. 

The  arms  of  the  furcula  in  all  the  specimens  which  I compared, 
diverged  less,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  body,  than  in  the  rock- 
])igeon ; and  the  whole  furculum  was  proportionally  shorter.  Thus 
in  a Hunt,  which  measured  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings-  38|-  inches,  the 
furculum  was  only  a very  little  longer  (with  the  arms  hardly  more 
divergent)  tlian  in  a rock-pigeon  which  measured  from  tip  to  tip 
26i  inches.  In  a Barb,  which  in  all  its  measurements  was  a little 
larger  than  the  same  rock-pigeon,  the  furculum  was  a quarter  of  an 
inch  shorter.  In  a Pouter,  the  furculum  had  not  been  lengthened 
proportionally  with  the  increased  length  of  the  body.  In  a Short- 
faced Tumbler,  which  measured  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings  24  inches, 
therefore  only  21  inches  less  than  the  rock-pigeon,  the  furculum  was 
barely  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  that  of  the  rock-pigeon. 

We  thus  clearly  see  that  the  sternum,  scapulae,  and  furculum 
are  all  reduced  in  proportional  length ; but  when  we  turn  to 
the  wings  we  find  what  at  first  appears  a wholly  difierent 
and  unexpected  result.  I may  here  remark  that  I have  not 
picked  out  specimens,  but  have  used  every  measurement  made 
by  me.  Taking  the  length  from  the  base  of  beak  to  the  end 
of  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  I find  that,  out  of 
thirty- five  birds  of  various  breeds,  tw^enty-five  have  wings  of 
greater,  and  ten  have  them  of  less  proportional  length,  than 
in  the  rock-pigeon.  But  from  the  frequently  correlated 
length  of  the  tail  and  wing-feathers,  it  is  better  to  take  as 
the  standard  of  comparison  the  length  from  the  base  of  the 
beak  to  the  oil-gland ; and  by  this  standard,  out  of  twenty- 
six  of  the  same  birds  which  had  been  thus  measured,  twenty- 
one  had  wdngs  too  long,  and  only  five  had  them  too  short. 
In  the  twenty-one  birds  the  wings  exceeded  in  length  those  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  on  an  average,  by  1 3-  inch  ; whilst  in  the  five 
birds  they  were  less  in  length  by  only  -8  of  an  inch.  As  I was 
much  surprised  that  the  wings  of  closely  confined  birds  should 
thus  so  frequently  have  been  increased  in  length,  it  occmrred 
to  me  that  it  might  be  solely  due  to  the  greater  length  of  the 
wing-feathers  ; for  this  certainly  is  the  case  with  the  Jacobin, 
which  has  wings  of  unusual  length.  As  in  almost  every  case 
I had  measured  the  folded  wdngs,  I subtracted  the  length  of 


I8()  DOMESTIC  pigeons:  Chap.  V. 

this  terminal  part  from  that  of  the  expanded  wings,  and  thus 
I.  obtained,  with  a moderate  d(}gTee  of  aceni-acy,  the  length  ot 
the  wings  from  the  ends  of  the  two  radii,  answering  from 
wrist  to  wrist  in  our  arms.  The  wings,  thus  measured  in 
the  same  twenty-five  birds,  now  gave  a widely  dift’eront 
result ; for  they  were  proportionally  with  those  of  the  rook- 
pigeon  too  short  in  seventeen  birds,  and  in  only  eight  toe 
long.  Of  these  eight  birds,  five  were  long-beaked,^®  and  this 
fact  perhaps  indicates  that  there  is  some  correlation  of  the 
length  of  the  beak  with  the  length  of  the  bones  of  the  wings, 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  that  of  the  feet  and  tarsi.  The 
shortening  of  the  humerus  and  radius  in  the  seventeen  birds 
may  probably  be  attiibuted  to  disuse,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
scapuhe  and  furculum  to  which  the  wing-bones  are  attached  ; — 
the  lengthening  of  the  wing-feathers,  and  consequently  the 
expansion  of  the  wings  from  tip  to  tip,  being,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  completely  independent  of  use  and  disuse  as  is  the 
growth  of  the  hair  or  wool  on  our  long-haired  dogs  or  long- 
wool  led  sheep. 

To  sum  up ; we  may  confidently  admit  that  the  length  of 
the  sternum,  and  frecjuently  the  prominence  of  its  crest,  the 
length  of  the  scapulte  and  furculum,  have  all  been  reduced  in 
size  in  comparison  with  the  same  parts  in  the  rock-pigeon. 
And  I presume  that  this  may  be  attributed  to  disuse  or 
lessened  exercise.  The  wings,  as  measured  from  the  ends  of 
the  radii,  have  likewise  been  generally  reduced  in  length  ; 
but,  owing  to  the  increased  growth  of  the  wing-feathers,  the 
wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  are  commonly  longer  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon.  The  feet,  as  well  as  the  tarsi  conjointly  with  the 
middle  toe,  have  likewise  in  most  cases  become  reduced ; and 
this  it  is  probable  has  been  caused  by  their  lessened  use;  but 
the  existence  of  some  sort  of  correlation  between  the  feet  and 
beak  is  shown  more  plainly  than  the  eftects  of  disuse.  We 


It  pnhap‘  deserves  notice  that 
besides  these  five  birds  two  of  the 
eight  were  Barbs,  which,  as  1 have 
shown,  must  be  classed  in  the  same 
group  with  the  long-beaked  Carriers 
and  Runts.  Barbs  may  properly  be 
called  short  beahed  Carriers.  It 


would,  therefore,  appear  as  if,  during 
the  reduction  of  their  beaks,  their 
wings  had  retained  a little  of  that 
excess  of  length  which  is  characteris- 
tic of  their  nearest  relations  and  pro- 
genitors. 


SUMMARY  OF  DIFFERENCES. 


Chap.  V. 


187 


have  also  some  laint  indication  of  a similar  correlation  between 
the  main  bones  of  the  wing  and  the  beak. 

Summary  on  the  Points  of  Difference  hetioeen  the  several  Domestie 
Paces,  and  between  the  individual  Birds.— HHlaQ  beak,  together 
with  the  bones  of  the  face,  differ  remarkably  in  length, 
bjcadth,  shape,  and  curvature.  The  skull  differs  in  shape, 
and  greatly  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  union  of  the  pre- 
maxillary, nasal,  and  maxillo-jugal  bones.  The  curvature  of 
the  lower  jaw  and  the  reflection  of  its  upper  margin,  as  well 
as  the  gape  of  the  mouth,  differ  in  a highly  remarkable 
manner.  The  tongue  varies  much  in  length,  both  in- 
dependently and  in  correlation  with  the  length  of  the  beak. 
The  development  of  the  naked,  wattled  skin  over  the  nostrils 
and  round  the  eyes  varies  in  an  extreme  degree.  The  eyelids 
and  the  external  orifices  of  the  nostrils  vary  in  length,  and 
are  to  a certain  extent  correlated  with  the  degree  of  develop 
ment  of  the  wattle.  The  size  and  form  of  the  oesophagus 
and  crop,  and  their  capacity  for  inflation,  differ  immensel3\ 
The  length  of  the  neck  varies.  With  the  varying  shape  of 
the  body,  the  breadth  and  number  of  the  ribs,  the  presence  of 
jirocesses,  the  number  of  the  sacral  vertebrae,  and  the  length 
of  the  sternum,  all  vary.  The  number  and  size  of  the 
coccygeal  vertebrae  vary,  apparently  in  correlation  with  the 
increased  size  of  the  tail.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  sternum,  and  the  size  and  divergence  of  the  arms 
of  the  furculum,  differ.  The  oil-gland  varies  in  development, 
and  is  sometimes  quite  aborted.  The  direction  and  length  of 
certain  feathers  have  been  much  modified,  as  in  the  hood  of 
the  Jacobin  and  the  frill  of  the  Turbit.  The  wing  and  tail- 
feathers  generally  vary  in  length  together,  but  sometimes 
independently  of  each  other  and  of  the  size  of  the  body.  'J'he 
number  and  position  of  the  tail-feather  vary  to  an  unparalleled 
degree.  The  primary  and  secondary  wing  feathers  occasion- 
ally vary  in  number,  apparently  in  con-elation  with  the 
length  of  the  wing.  The  length  of  the  leg  and  the  size  of 
the  feet,  and,  in  connection  .with  the  latter,  the  number  of 
the  scutellae,  all  vary.  A web  of  skin  sometimes  connects 
the  bases  of  the  two  inner  toes,  and  almost  invariably  the  two 
outer  toes  when  the  feet  are  feathered. 

The  size  of  the  body  differs  greatly  : a Runt  has  bc'en  known 


188 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap.  V. 


to  •weigh  more  than  five  times  as  much  as  a Short-faced 
Tumbler.  The  eggs  differ  in  size  and  shape.  According  to 
Parmentier,^®  some  races  use  much  straw  in  building  their 
nests,  and  others  use  little ; but  I cannot  hear  of  any  recent 
corroboration  of  this  statement.  The  length  of  time  required 
for  hatching  the  eggs  is  uniform  in  all  the  breeds.  The  period 
at  which  the  characteristic  plumage  of  some  breeds  is  acquired, 
and  at  which  certain  changes  of  colour  supervene,  differs. 
Idle  degree  to  which  the  young  birds  are  clothed  with  down 
when  first  hatched  is  different,  and  is  correlated  in  a singular 
manner  with  the  colour  of  the  plumage.  The  manner  of 
flight,  and  certain  inherited  movements,  such  as  clapping  the 
wings,  tumbling  either  in  the  air  or  on  the  ground,  and  the 
manner  of  courting  the  female,  present  the  most  singular 
differences.  In  disposition  the  several  races  differ.  Some 
races  are  very  silent;  others  coo  in  a highly  peculiar 
manner. 

Although  many  different  races  have  kept  true  in  character 
during  several  centuries,  as  we  shall  hereafter  more  fully 
see.  yet  there  is  far  more  individual  variability  in  the  most 
constant  breeds  than  in  birds  in  a state  of  nature.  There  is 
hardly  any  exception  to  the  rule  that  those  characters  vary 
most  which  are  now  most  valued  and  attended  to  by  fanciers, 
and  which  consequent!}'  are  now  being  improved  by  continued 
selection.  This  is  indirectly  admitted  by  fanciers  when  they 
complain  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  breed  high  ffincy 
pigeons  up  to  the  proper  standard  of  excellence  than  the  so- 
called  toy  pigeons,  which  differ  from  each  other  merely  in 
colour;  for  particular  colours  when  once  acquired  are  not 
liable  to  continued  improvement  or  augmentation.  Some 
characters  become  attached,  from  quite  unknown  causes,  more 
sirougly  to  the  male  than  to  the  female  sex;  so  that  we  have 
in  certain  races,  a tendency  towards  the  appearance  of  secon- 
dary sexual  characters, of  which  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon 
displays  not  a trace. 


Teraminok,  ‘Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  dcs 
Pigeons  et  des  Gallinaces,’  tom.  i,, 
1813,  p.  170. 

This  term  was  used  by  John 
Hunter  tor  such  differences  in  structure 


between  the  males  and  females,  as  are 
not  directly  connected  with  the  act  of 
reproduction,  as  the  tail  of  the  pea- 
cock, the  horns  of  deer,  &;c. 


Chap.  VI.  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS : THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


189 


CHAPTER  YI. 

PIGEONS — continued. 

ON  THE  AHOIITGINAL  PARENT-STOCK  OP  THE  SEVERAL  DOMESTIC  RACES— 
HABITS  OP  LIFE — WILD  RACES  OP  THE  ROCK -PIGEON — DOVECOT-PIGEONS — ■ 
I’ROOFS  OF  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  FROM  COLUMBA  LIVIA 
— FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN  CROSSED — REVERSION  TO  THE  PLUMAGE 
OP  THE  WILD  ROCK-PIGEON — CIRCUMSTANCES  FAVOURABLE  TO  THE  FOR- 
MATION OF  THE  RACES — ANTIQUITY  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL 
RACES — MANNER  OP  THEIR  FORMATION — SELECTION — UNCONSCIOUS  SE- 
LECTION— CARE  TAKEN  BY  FANCIERS  IN  SELECTING  THEIR  BIRDS— 
SLIGHTLY  DIFFERENT  STRAINS  GRADUALLY  CHANGE  INTO  WELL-MARKED 
BREEDS — EXTINCTION  OP  INTERMEDIATE  FORMS — CERTAIN  BREEDS  REJIAIN 
PERMANENT,  WHILST  OTHERS  CHANGE — SUMMARY. 

The  differences  described  in  tbe  last  chapter  between  the 
eleven  chief  domestic  races  and  between  individnal  birds  ot 
tbe  same  race,  would  be  of  little  significance,  if  they  had  not 
all  descended  from  a single  wild  stock.  I'he  question  of  their 
origin  is  therefore  of  fundamental  importance,  and  must  be 
discussed  at  considerable  length.  No  one  will  think  this 
superfluous  who  considers  the  great  amount  of  difference 
between  the  races,  who  knows  how  ancient  many  of  them 
are,  and  how  truly  they  breed  at  the  present  day.  Fanciers 
almost  unanimously  believe  that  the  different  races  are 
descended  from  several  wild  stocks,  whereas  most  naturalists 
believe  that  all  are  descended  from  the  Columha  livia  or  rock- 
pigeon. 

Temminck  1 has  well  observed,  and  Mr.  Gould  has  made 
the  same  remark  to  me,  that  the  aboriginal  parent  must  have 
been  a species  which  roosted  and  built  its  nest  on  rocks ; and 
I may  add  that  it  must  have  been  a social  bird.  For  all  the 
domestic  races  are  highly  social,  and  none  are  known  to  build 
or  habitually  to  roost  on  trees.  The  awkward  manner  in 
which  some  pigeons,  kept  by  me  in  a summer-house  near  an 
old  walnut-tree,  occasionally  alighted  on  the  barer  branches, 

* Tcmminck,  ‘Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des  Pigeon.s,’  &c.,  tom.  i.  p.  191. 


190 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  VI. 


was  evident.^  Nevertheless,  Mr.  R.  Scot  Skirving  informs 
me  that  he  often  saw  ciowds  of  pigeons  in  Upper  Egypt 
settling  on  low  trees,  but  not  on  palms,  in  prefeicnce  to 
alighting  on  the  mud  hovels  of  the  natives.  In  India  IMr. 
Rlyth^  has  been  assured  that  the  wild  G.  livia,  var.  intermedia, 
sometimes  roosts  in  trees.  I may  here  give  a curious  instance 
of  compulsion  leading  to  changed  habits:  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  above  lat.  28°  30'  are  perpendicular  for  a long  distance, 
so  that  when  the  river  is  full  the  pigeons  cannot  alight  on 
the  shore  to  drink,  and  Mr.  Skirving  repeatedly  saw  whole 
flocks  settle  on  the  water,  and  drink  whilst  they  floated  down 
the  stream.  These  flocks  seen  from  a distance  resembled 
flocks  of  gulls  on  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

If  any  domestic  race  had  descended  from  a species  which 
was  not  social,  or  which  built  its  nest  and  roosted  in  trees,*^ 
the  .sharp  eyes  of  fanciers  would  assuredly  have  detected  some 
vestige  of  so  different  an  aborigioal  habit.  For  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  aboriginal  habits  are  long  retained 
under  domestication.  Thus  with  the  common  ass  we  see 
signs  of  its  original  desert  life  in  its  strong  dislike  to  cross 
the  smallest  stream  of  water,  and  in  its  pleasure  in  rolling  in 
the  dnst.  The  same  strong  dislike  to  cross  a stream  is 
common  to  the  camel,  which  has  been  domesticated  from  a 
very  ancient  period.  Young  pigs,  though  so  tame,  sometimes 
S(][uat  when  frightened,  and  thus  try  to  conceal  themselves 
even  on  an  open  and  bare  place.  Young  turkeys,  and  occa- 
sionally even  young  fowls,  when  the  hen  gives  the  danger- 
cry,  run  away  and  try  to  hide  themselves,  like  young  par- 
tridges or  pheasants,  in  order  that  their  mother  may  take 

* In  works  written  on  the  pigeon 
by  fanciers  I have  sometimes  observed 
the  mistaken  belief  expressed  that 
the  species  which  naturalists  called 
ground-pigeons  (in  contradistinction 
to  arboreal  pigeons)  do  not  perch  and 
build  on  trees.  In  these  same  works 
by  fanciers  wild  species  resembling 
the  chief  domestic  races  are  often  said 
to  exist  in  various  i)arts  of  the  world; 
but  such  species  are  quite  unknown 
to  naturalists. 


* I have  heard  through  Sir  C.  Lyell 
from  Miss  Buckley,  that  some  half- 
bred  Carriers  kept  during  many  years 
near  London  regularly  settled  by  day 
on  some  adjoining  trees,  and,  after 
being  disturbed  in  their  loft  by  their 
young  being  taken,  roosted  on  them  at 
night. 

^ ‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’ 
2iid  ser.,  \ml.  xx.,  1857,  p.  5<i9  ; and 
in  a late  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Asiatic  Society. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIK  PARENTAGE. 


191 


flight,  of  which  she  has  lost  the  power.  Ihe  mnsk-diich 
{Cairina  moschata)  in  its  native  country  often  perches  and 
roosts  on  trees, ^ and  our  domesticated  musk-ducks,  though 
such  sluggish  birds,  “are  fond  of  perching  on  the  tops  of 
barns,  walls,  &c.,  and,  if  allowed  to  spend  the  night  in  the 
hen  -house,  the  female  will  generally  go  to  roost  by  the  side 
of  the  hens,  but  the  drake  is  too  heavy  to  mount  thither  with 
ease.”  ^ We  know  that  the  dog,  however  well  and  regularly 
fed,  often  buries,  like  the  fox,  any  superfluous  food ; and  we 
see  him  turning  round  and  round  on  a carpet,  as  if  to  trample 
down  grass  to  form  a bed  ; we  see  him  on  bare  pavements 
scratching  backwards  as  if  to  throw  earth  over  his  excrement, 
although,  as  I believe,  this  is  never  effected  even  where  there 
is  earth.  In  the  delight  with  which  lambs  and  kids  crowd 
together  and  fiisk  on  the  smallest  hillock,  we  see  a vestige  of 
their  foi’mer  alpine  habits. 

We  have  therefore  good  reason  to  believe  that  all  the 
domestic  races  of  the  pigeon  are  descended  either  from  some 
one  or  from  several  species  which  both  roosted  and  built  their 
nests  on  rocks,  and  were  social  in  disposition.  As  only  live 
or  six  wild  species  have  these  habits,  and  make  any  near 
approach  in  structure  to  the  domesticated  pigeon,  I will 
enumerate  them. 

Firstly,  the  CoJumbaJeucovota  resembles  certain  domestic  varieties 
in  its  plumage,  with  the  one  marked  and  never-failing  difference  of 
a white  band  which  crosses  the  tail  at  some  distance  from  the 
extremity.  This  species,  moreover,  inhabits  the  Himalaya,  close  to 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow;  and  therefore,  as  Mr.  Blyth  has  re- 
marked, is  not  likely  to  have  been  the  parent  of  our  domestic 
breeds,  which  thrive  in  the  hottest  countries.  Secondly,  the  C. 
rupt'stris^  of  Central  Asia,  which  is  intermediate^  between  the  ' 
leuconota  and  livid ; but  has  nearly  the  same  coloured  tail  as  the 
former  species.  Thirdly,  the  Columha  liUoruUs  builds  and  roosts, 
according  to  Temminck,  on  rocks  in  the  Malayan  archipelago;  it  is 
white,  excepting  parts  of  the  wing  and  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  ar(^ 
black;  its  legs  are  livid-coloured,  and  this  is  a character  not 
observed  in  any  adult  domestic  pigeon  ; but  1 need  not  have 
mentioned  this  species  or  the  closely -allied  G.  luctiiosa,  as  they  in 


® Sir  R.  Schomburgk,  in  ‘Journal  ® Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  ‘Oinamental 
R.  Geograi'h.  Soc.,’  vol.  xiii.,  1844,  Poultry,’  1848,  pp.  63,  66 
p.  32.  ^ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,  1859,  p.  400. 


102 


DOMESTIC  riGEONS: 


Chap,  VI. 


fact  bclonpj  to  the  genus  Carpopho.ga.  Fourthly,  Columha  quine,  r, 
which  ranges  from  Guinea*^  to  Uie  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  roosts 
either  on  trees  or  rocks,  according  to  tlie  nature  of  the  country. 
This  species  belongs  to  the  genus  StrictoGiias  of  Reichenhacli,  but 
is  closely  allied  to  Columba;  it  is  to  some  extent  coloured  like 
certain  domestic  races,  and  has  been  said  to  be  domesticated  in 
Abyssinia;  but  Mr  Mansfield  Parkyns,  who  collected  the  birds  (d 
that  country  and  knows  the  species,  informs  me  that  this  is  a 
mistake.  Moreover,  the  C.  guinea  is  characterized  by  the  feathers 
of  the  neck  having  peculiar  notched  tips, — a character  not  observed 
in  any  domestic  race.  Fifthly,  the  Columha  oends  of  Europe,  which 
roosts  on  trees,  and  builds  its  nest  .in  holes,  either  in  trees  or  the 
ground  ; tliis  species,  as  far  as  external  characters  go,  might  be  the 
I)arent  of  several  domestic  races ; but,  though  it  crosses  readily 
with  the  true  rock-pigeon,  the  offspring,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
are  sterile  hybrids,  and  of  such  sterility  there  is  not  a trace  when 
the  domestic  races  are  intercrossed.  It  should  also  be  observed 
that  if  we  were  to  admit,  against  all  probability,  that  any  of  the 
foregoing  five  or  six  species  were  tlie  parents  of  some  of  our 
domestic  pigeons,  not  the  least  light  would  be  thrown  on  the 
chief  differences  between  the  eleven  most  strongly-marked  races. 

We  now  come  to  the  best  known  rock-pigeon,  the  Columha  livia, 
which  is  often  designated  in  Europe  pre-eminently  as  the  Pock- 
pigeon,  and  which  naturalists  believe  to  be  the  parent  of  all  the 
domesticated  breeds.  This  bird  agrees  in  every  essential  character 
with  the  breeds  which  have  been  only  slightly  modified.  It  differs 
from  all  other  species  in  being  of  a slaty-blue  colour,  with  two  black 
bars  on  the  wings,  and  with  the  croup  (or  loins)  white.  Occasionally 
birds  are  seen  in  Faroe  and  the  Hebrides  with  the  black  bars 
replaced  by  two  or  three  black  spots ; this  form  has  been  named  by 
Brehm  ^ C.  amalice,  but  this  species  has  not  been  admitted  as  distinct 
by  other  ornithologists.  Graba  even  found  a difference  in  the  bars 
on  the  right  and  left  wings  of  the  same  bird  in  Faroe.  Another  and 
rather  more  distinct  form  is  either  truly  wild  or  has  become  feral 
on  the  cliffs  of  England  and  was  doubtfully  named  by  Mr.  Bl^^th 
as  C,  affinU,  but  is  now  no  longer  considered  by  him  as  a distinct 
species.  C.  effinis  is  rather  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon  of  the 
Scottish  islands,  and  has  a very  diferent  appearance  owing  to  the 
wing-coverts  being  chequered  with  black,  with  similar  marks  often 
extending  over  the  back.  The  chequering  consists  of  a large  black 


* Temminck,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des 
Pigeons,’  tom.  i. ; also  ‘ Les  Pigeons, 
par  Mme.  Knip  and  Temminck.  Bona- 
parte, however,  in  his  ‘ Coup-d'oeil,’ 
believes  that  two  closely  allied  species 
are  confounded  together  under  this 
name.  The  C.  leucojephal  i of  the 
West  Indies  is  stated  by  Temminck  to 
be  a rock-pigeon  ; but  I am  informed 


by  Mr.  Gosse  that  this  is  an  error. 

® ‘Handbuch  der  NaturgesGi. 
Vogel  Deutschlands.’ 

‘ Tagebuch,  Keise  nach  Faro,’ 
1830,  s.  02. 

“ ‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.’ 
vol.  xix.  1847,  p.  102.  This  e.xcel lent 
paper  on  pigeons  is  well  '.\ortli  con- 
sulting. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIK  PARENTAGE. 


193 


spot  on  tlie  two  sides,  but  chiefly  on  tlie  outer  side,  of  each  feather. 
The  wing-bars  in  the  true  rock-pigeon  and  in  the  chequered 
variety  are,  in  fact,  due  to  similar  though  larger  spots  symmetrically 
crossing  the  secondary  wing-feather  and  the  larger  coverts.  Hence 
tlie  chequering  arises  merely  from  an  extension  of  these  marks  to 
other  parts  of  the  plumage.  Chequered  birds  are  not  confined  to 
the  coasts  of  England  ; for  they  were  found  by  Graba  at  Faroe  ; and 
W.  Thompson  says  that  at  Islay  fully  half  the  wild  rock-pigeons 
were  chequered.  Colonel  King,  of  Hythe,  stocked  his  dovecot  with 
young  wild  birds  which  he  himself  procured  from  nests  ai  the 
Orkney  Islands ; and  several  specimens,  kindly  sent  to  me  by  him, 
were  all  plainly  chequered.  As  we  thus  see  that  chequered  birds 
occur  mingled  with  the  true  rock-pigeon  at  three  distinct  sites, 
namely,  Faroe,  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  Islay,  no  importance  can 
be  attached  to  this  natural  variation  in  the  plumage. 

Prince  C.  L.  Bonaparte,^^  a great  divider  of  species,  enumerates, 
with  a mark  of  interrogation,  as  distinct  from  G.  livia,  the  C.  turricola 
of  Italy,  the  G.  rupestris  of  Daouria,  and  the  G.  schimperi  of  Abys- 
sinia ; but  these  birds  differ  from  G.  Uvia  in  characters  of  the  most 
trifling  value.  In  the  British  Museum  there  is  a chequered  pigeon, 
probably  the  G.  schimperi  of  Bonaparte,  from  Abyssinia.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  G.  gymnocyclus  of  G.  R.  Gray  from  W.  Africa, 
which  is  slightly  more  distinct,  and  has  rather  more  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes  than  the  rock-pigeon  ; but  from  information  given 
me  by  Dr.  Daniell,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  a wild  bird,  for 
dovecot-pigeons  (which  I have  examined)  are  kept  on  the  coast  of 
Guiriea. 

The  wild  rock-pigeon  of  India  {G.  intermedia  of  Strickland)  has 
been  more  generally  accepted  as  a distinct  species.  It  differs  chiefly 
in  the  croup  being  blue  instead  of  snow-white ; but  as  Mr.  Blyth 
informs  me,  the  tint  varies,  being  sometimes  albescent.  When  this 
foroj  is  domesticated  chequered  birds  appear,  just  as  occurs  in 
Europe  with  the  truly  wild  G.  livi  i.  Moreover  we  shall  immediately 
have  proof  that  the  blue  and  white  croup  is  a highly  variable 
character ; and  Bechstein  asserts  that  with  dovecot-pigeons  in 
Germany  this  is  the  most  variable  of  all  the  characters  of  the 
plumage.  Hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  G.  intermedia  cannot  be 
ranked  as  specifically  distinct  from  G.  Uvia. 

In  Madeira  there  is  a rock-pigeon  which  a few  ornithologists  have 
suspected  to  be  distinct  from  G.  Uvia.  I have  examined  numerous 
specimens  collected  by  Mr.  E.  V.  Harcourt  and  Mr.  Mason.  They 
are  rather  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands, 
and  their  beaks  are  plainly  thinner,  but  the  thickness  of  the  beak 
varied  in  the  several  specimens.  In  plumage  there  is  remarkable 


‘ Natural  History  of  Ireland,’  geons,’  ‘ Comptes  Rendus,’  1854-55. 
Birds,  vol.  ii.  (1850),  p.  11.  For  Naturgeschichte.  Deutschlands^ 

Sraba,  see  previous  reference.  Band  iv.  1795,  s.  14. 

‘Coup-d’oeil  sur  I’Ordre  des  Pi- 
14 


194 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS 


Chap.  VI. 


diversity ; some  specimens  are  identical  in  every  feather  (I  speak 
after  actual  comparison)  with  the  rock-pigeon  of  the  Shetland 
Islands  ; others  are  chequered,  like  C.  affmis  from  the  cliffs  of 
England,  but  generally  to  a greater  degree,  being  almost  black  over 
the  whole  back;  others  are  identical  with  the  so-called  Q.  intermedia 
of  India  in  the  degree  of  blueness  of  the  croup ; whilst  others  have 
this  part  very  pale  or  very  dark  blue,  and  are  likewise  chequered. 
So  much  variability  raises  a strong  suspicion  that  these  birds  are 
domestic  pigeons  which  have  become  feral. 

From  these  facts  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  G.  Uvia,  ajjjlnis, 
intermedia,  and  the  forms  marked  with  an  interrogation  by  Bonaparte 
ought  all  to  be  included  under  a single  species.  But  it  is  quite 
immaterial  whether  or  not  they  are  thus  ranked,  and  whether  some 
one  of  these  forms  or  all  are  the  progenitors  of  the  various  domestic 
kinds,  as  far  as  any  light  can  thus  be  thrown  on  the  differences 
betw^een  the  more  strongly-marked  races.  That  common  dovecot- 
pigeons,  which  are  kept  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  are  descended 
from  one  or  from  several  of  the  above-mentioned  wild  varieties  of 
C.  Uvia,  no  one  who  compares  them  will  doubt.  But  before  making 
a few  remarks  on  dovecot-pigeons,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  wild 
rock-pigeon  has  been  found  easy  to  tame  in  several  countries.  We 
liave  seen  that  Colonel  King  at  Hytlie  stocked  his  dovecot  maore 
than  twenty  years  ago  with  young  wild  birds  taken  at  the  Orkney 
Islands,  and  since  then  they  have  greatly  multiplied.  The  accurate 
Macgillivray  asserts  that  he  completely  tamed  a wild  rock-pigeon 
in  the  Hebrides  ; and  several  accounts  are  on  records  of  these  pigeons 
having  bred  in  dovecots  in  the  Shetland  Islands.  In  India,  as 
Captain  Hutton  informs  me,  the  wild  rock-pigeon  is  easily  tamed, 
and  breeds  readily  with  the  domestic  kind  ; and  Mr.  Blyth  asserts 
that  wild  birds  come  frequently  to  the  dovecots  and  mingle  freely 
with  their  inhabitants.  In  the  ancient " Ayeen  Akbery  ’ it  is  written 
that,  if  a few  wild  pigeons  be  taken,  ''they  are  speedily  joined  by  a 
thousand  others  of  their  kind.” 

Dovecot-pigeons  are  those  which  are  kept  in  dovecots  in  a semi- 
domesticated  state  ; for  no  special  care  is  taken  of  them,  and  they 
])rocure  their  own  food,  except  during  the  severest  weather.  In 
England,  and,  judging  from  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie’s  work,  in 
France,  the  common  dovecot-pigeon  exactly  resembles  the  chequered 


‘ History  of  British  Birds,’  vol.  i. 
pp.  275-284.  Mr.  Andrew  Duncan 
tamed  a rock-pigeon  in  the  Shetland 
Islands.  Mr.  James  Barclay,  and  Mr. 
Smith  of  Uyea  Sound  both  say  that 
the  wild  rock-pigeon  can  be  easily 
tamed ; and  the  former  gentleman 
asserts  that  the  tamed  birds  breed 
four  times  a year.  Dr.  Lawrence 
Ldinondstone  informs  me  that  a wild 


rock-pigeon  came  and  settled  in  his 
dovecot  in  Balta  Sound  in  the  Shet- 
land Islands,  and  bred  with  his 
pigeons ; he  has  also  given  me  other 
instances  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon 
having  been  taken  young  and  breed- 
ing in  captivity. 

‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat, 
History,’ vol.  xix.  1817,  p.  103,  an.l 
vqI.  for  1857,  p.  512. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


195 


variety  of  C.  livia  ; but  I have  seen  dovecots  brought  from  Yorkshire 
without  any  trace  of  chequering,  like  the  wild  rock-pigeon  of  the 
Shetland  Islands.  The  chequered  dovecots  from  the  Orkney  Islands, 
after  having  been  domesticated  by  Colonel  King  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  differed  slightly  from  each  other  in  the  darkness  of 
their  plumage  and  in  the  thickness  of  their  beaks  ; the  thinnest  beak 
being  rather  thicker  than  the  thickest  one  in  the  Madeira  birds.  In 
Germany,  according  toBechstein,  the  common  dovecot- pigeon  is  not 
chequered.  In  India  they  often  become  chequered,  and  sometimes 
pied  with  white ; the  croup  also,  as  I am  informed  by  Mr-.  Blyth, 
becomes  nearly  white.  I have  received  from  Sir.  J.  Brooke  some 
dovecot-pigeons,  which  originally  came  from  the  S.  Natonas  Islands 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  which  had  been  crossed  with  the 
Singapore  dovecots : they  were  small  and  the  darkest  variety  was 
extremely  like  the  dark  chequered  variety  with  a blue  croup  from 
Madeira ; but  the  beak  was  not  so  thin,  though  decidedly  thinner 
than  in  the  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands.  A dovecot- 
pigeon  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Swinhoe  from  Foochow,  in  China,  was 
likewise  rather  small,  but  differed  in  no  other  respect.  I have 
also  received  through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Daniell,  four  living  dovecot- 
pigeons  from  Sierra  Leone,  these  were  fully  as  large  as  the 
Shetland  rock-pigeon,  with  even  bulkier  bodies.  In  plumage  some 
of  them  were  identical  with  the  Shetland  rock  pigeon,  but  with  the 
metallic  tints  apparently  rather  more  brilliant  ; others  had  a blue 
croup,  and  resembled  the  chequered  variety  of  (7.  intermedia  of 
India ; and  some  were  so  much  chequered  as  to  be  nearly  black. 
In  these  four  birds  the  beak  differed  slightly  in  length,  but  in  all  it 
w^as  decidedly  shorter,  more  massive,  and  stronger  than  in  the  wild 
rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands,  or  in  the  English  dovecot. 
When  the  beaks  of  these  African  pigeons  were  compared  with  the 
thinnest  beaks  of  the  wild  Madeira  specimens,  the  contrast  was  great ; 
the  former  being  fully  one-third  thicker  in  a vertical  direction 
than  the  latter ; so  that  any  one  at  first  would  have  felt  inclined  to 
rank  these  birds  as  specifically  distinct;  yet  so  perfectly  graduated  a 
series  could  be  formed  between  the  above-mentioned  varieties,  that 
it  was  obviously  impossible  to  separate  them. 

To  sum  up  : the  wild  Columha  livia,  including  under  this 
name  C.  affinis,  intermedia^  and  the  other  still  more  closely- 
affined  geographical  races,  has  a vast  range  from  the  southern 
coast  of  Norway  and  the  Faroe  Islands  to  the  shores  of  the 
IMediterranean,  to  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands,  to  Abys- 
sinia, India,  and  Japan.  It  varies  greatly  in  plumage,  being 

Domestic  pigeons  of  the  common  published  in  1746;  they  are  said,  in 

kind  are  mentioned  as  being  pretty  accordance  with  the  name  which  they 

numerous  in  John  Barbut’s  ‘ Descrip-  bear,  to  have  been  imported, 
tion  of  the  Coast  cf  Guinea  ’(P-  215), 


196 


DOMESTIC  riGEONS: 


Chap.  VI 


in  many  places  chequered  with  black,  and  having  eitlier  a 
white  or  blue  croup  or  loins  ; it  varies  also  slightly  in  the 
size  of  the  beak  and  body.  Dovecot-pigeons,  which  no  one 
disputes  are  descended  from  one  or  more  of  the  above  wild 
forms,  present  a similar  but  greater  range  of  variation  in 
])lumage,  in  the  size  of  body,  and  in  the  length  and  thickness 
of  the  beak.  There  seems  to  be  some  relation  between  ,the 
croup  being  blue  or  white,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
country  inhabited  by  both  wild  and  dovecot  pigeons ; for 
nearly  all  the  dovecot-]3igeons  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
have  a white  croup,  like  that  of  the  wild  European  rock- 
pigeon  ; and  nearly  all  the  dovecot-pigeons  of  India  have  a 
blue  croup  like  that  of  the  wild  C.  intermedia  of  India.  As  in 
various  countries  the  wild  rock-pigeon  has  been  found  easy  to 
tame,  it  seems  extremely  probable  that  the  dovecot-pigeons 
throughout  the  world  are  the  descendants  of  at  least  two  and 
perhaps  more  wild  stocks ; but  these,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
cannot  be  ranked  as  specifically  distinct. 

With  respect  to  the  variation  of  (7.  livia,  we  may  without 
fear  of  contradiction  go  one  step  further.  Tiiose  pigeon- 
fanciers  who  believe  that  all  the  chief  races,  such  as  Carriers, ' 
Pouters,  Eantails,  &c.,  are  descended  from  distinct  aboriginal 
stocks,  yet  admit  that  the  so-called  toy-pigeons,  which  differ 
f]  om  the  rock-pigeon  in  little  except  colour,  are  descended 
from  this  bird.  By  toy -pigeons  are  meant  such  birds  as  Spots, 
Nuns,  Helmets,  Swallows,  Priests,  Monks,  Porcelains,  Swa- 
bians, Archangels,  Breasts,  Shields,  and  others  in  Europe,  and 
many  others  in  India.  It  would  indeed  be  as  puerile  to 
suppose  that  all  these  birds  are  descended  from  so  many 
distinct  wild  stocks  as  to  suppose  this  to  be  the  case  with  the 
many  varieties  of  the  gooseberry,  heartsease,  or  dahlia.  Yet 
these  kinds  all  breed  true,  and  many  of  them  include  sub- 
varieties  which  likewise  transmit  their  character  truly. 
They  differ  greatly  from  each  other  and  from  the  rock-pigeon 
in  plumage,  slightly  in  size  and  proportions  of  body,  in  size 
of  feet,  and  in  the  length  and  thickness  of  their  beaks.  They 
differ  from  each  other  in  these  res^^ects  more  than  do  dove- 
cot-pigeons. Although  we  may  safely  admit  that  dovecot- 
pigeons,  which  vary  slightly,  and  that  toy-pigeons,  which 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  TARENTAGE. 


197 


vary  in  a greater  degree  in  accordance  with  their  more  highly- 
domesticated  condition,  are  descended  from  G.  Inna,  including 
under  this  name  the  above  - enumerated  wild  geographical 
races  ; yet  the  question  becomes  far  more  difficult  when  we 
consider  the  eleven  principal  races,  most  of  which  have  been 
profoundly  modified.  It  can,  however,  be  shown,  by  indirect 
evidence  of  a perfectly  conclusive  nature,  that  these  principal 
races  are  not  descended  from  so  many  wild  stocks  ; and  if  this 
he  once  admitted,  few  will  dispute  that  they  are  the  descen- 
dants of  G.  lima,  which  agrees  with  them  so  closely  in  habits 
and  in  most  characters,  which  varies  in  a state  of  nature,  and 
which  has  certainly  undergone  a considerable  amount  of 
variation,  as  in  the  toy-pigeons.  We  shall  moreover  presently 
see  how  eminently  favourable  circumstances  have  been  for  a 
great  amount  of  modification  in  the  more  carefully  tended 
breeds. 

The  reasons  for  concluding  that  the  several  principal  races 
are  not  descended  from  so  many  aboriginal  and  unknowm 
stocks  may  be  grouped  under  the  following  six  heads  : — Firstly, 
if  the  eleven  chief  races  have  not  arisen  from  the  variation  of 
some  one  species,  together  with  its  geographical  races,  they 
must  be  descended  from  several  extremely  distinct  aboriginal 
species ; for  no  amount  of  crossing  between  only  six  or  seven 
wild  forms  could  produce  races  so  distinct  as  Pouters,  Carriers, 
Punts,  Fan  tails,  Turbits,  Short-faced  Tumblers,  Jacobins,  and 
Trumpeters.  How  could  crossing  produce,  for  instance,  a 
Pouter  or  a Fantail,  unless  the  two  supposed  aboriginal 
parents  possessed  the  remarkable  characters  of  these  breeds  ? 
I am  aware  that  some  naturalists,  following  Pallas,  believe 
that  crossing  gives  a strong  tendency  to  variation,  indepen- 
dently of  the  characters  inherited  from  either  parent.  I hey 
believe  that  it  would  be  easier  to  raise  a Pouter  or  Fantail 
pigeon  from  crossing  two  distinct  species,  neither  of  which 
possessed  the  characters  of  these  races,  than  from  any  single 
species.  I can  find  few  facts  in  support  of  this  doctrine,  and 
bcl  ieve  in  it  only  to  a limited  degree  ; but  in  a future  chapter 
X shall  have  to  recur  to  this  subject.  For  our  present  purpose 
the  point  is  not  material.  The  question  which  concerns  us  is, 
whether  or  not  many  new  and  important  characters  have 


U)8 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


CiJAi-.  YI 


aiisen  since  man  first  domesticated  the  pigeon.  On  the 
ordinary  view,  variability  is  due  to  changed  conditions  of  life  ; 
on  the  Pallasian  doctrine,  variability,  or  the  appearance  of 
new  characters,  is  due  to  some  mysterious  efiect  from  the  cross- 
ing of  two  species,  neither  of  which  possesses  the  characters 
in  question.  In  some  few  instances  it  is  possible  that  well- 
marked  races  may  have  been  formed  by  crossing ; for  instance, 
a Barb  might  perhaps  be  formed  by  a cross  between  a long- 
beaked  Carrier,  having  large  eye-wattles,  and  some  short- 
beaked  pigeon.  That  many  races  have  been  in  some  degree 
modified  by  crossing,  and  that  certain  varieties  which  are 
disiinguished  only  by  peculiar  tints  have  arisen  fiom  crosses 
between  differently-coloured  varieties,  is  almost  certain.  On 
the  doctrine,  therefore,  that  the  chief  races  owe  their  differ- 
ences to  their  descent  from  distinct  species,  we  must  admit 
that  at  least  eight  or  nine,  or  more  probably  a dozen  species, 
all  having  the  same  habit  of  breeding  and  roosting  on  rocks 
and  living  in  society,  either  now  exist  somewhere,  or  formerly 
existed,  but  have  become  extinct  as  wild  birds.  Considering 
how  carefully  wild  pigeons  have  been  collected  throughout 
the  world,  and  what  conspicuous  birds  they  are,  especially 
when  frequenting  rocks,  it  is  extremely  improbable  that 
eight  or  nine  species,  which  were  long  ago  domesticated  and 
therefore  must  have  inhabited  some  anciently  known  country, 
should  still  exist  in  the  wild  state  and  be  unknown  to  orni- 
thologists. 

The  hypothesis  that  such  species  formerly  existed,  but  have 
become  extinct,  is  in  some  slight  degree  more  probable.  But 
the  extinction  of  so  many  species  within  tlie  historical  period  is 
a bold  hypothesis,  seeing  how  Uttle  influence  man  has  had  in 
exterminating  the  common  rock-pigeon,  which  agi  ees  in  all  its 
habits  of  life  with  the  domestic  races.  The  C.  livia  now  exists 
and  flourishes  on  the  small  northern  islands  of  Faroe,  on  many 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Scotland,  on  Sardinia,  and  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the /centre  of  India.  Fanciers  have 
sometimes  imagined  that  the  several  supposed  parent -species 
were  originally  confined  to  small  islands,  and  thus  might 
readily  have  been  exterminated ; but  the  facts  just  given  do  not 
favour  the  probability  of  their  extinction,  even  on  small  islands 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


199 


Kor  is  it  probable,  from  what  is  known  of  the  distribution  of 
birds,  that  the  islands  near  Europe  should  have  been  inhabited 
by  j)eculiar  species  of  pigeons;  and  if  we  assume  that  distant 
oceanic  islands  were  the  homes  of  the  supposed  parent-species, 
we  must  remember  that  ancient  voyages  were  tediously  slow, 
and  that  ships  were  then  ill-provided  with  fresh  food,  so  that 
it  would  not  have  been  easy  to  bring  home  living  birds. 
I have  said  ancient  voyages,  for  nearly  all  the  races  of  the 
pigeon  were  known  before  the  year  1600,  so  that  the  supposed 
wild  S23ecies  must  have  been  cap)tured  and  domesticated  before 
that  date. 

Secondly. — The  doctrine  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are 
descended  from  several  aboriginal  s^Decies,  implies  that  several 
species  were  formerly  so  thoroughly  domesticated  as  to  breed 
readily  when  confined.  Although  it  is  easy  to  tame  most  wild 
birds,  ex2)erience  shows  us  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  them  to 
breed  freely  under  confinement;  although  it  must  be  owned  that 
this  is  less  difficult  with  pigeons  than  with  most  other  birds. 
During  the  last  two  or  three  hundred  years,  many  birds  have 
been  kejot  in  aviaries,  but  hardly  one  has  been  added  to  our 
list  of  thoroughly  reclaimed  species  : yet  on  the  above  doctrine 
we  must  admit  that  in  ancient  times  nearly  a dozen  kinds 
of  pigeons,  now  unknown  in  the  wild  state,  were  thoroughly 
vdomesticated. 

Thirdly. — Most  of  our  domesticated  animals  have  run  wild 
in  various  parts  of  the  world ; but  birds,  owing  a^Dparenf ly  to 
their  partial  loss  of  the  power  of  flight,  less  often  than  quad- 
rujDeds.  Nevertheless  I have  met  with  accounts  showing  that 
the  common  fowl  has  become  feral  in  South  America  and 
perha2)S  in  West  Africa,  and  on  several  islands : the  turkey 
was  at  one  tiine  almost  feral  on  the  banks  of  the  Parana ; and 
the  Guinea-fowl  has  become  perfectly  wild  at  Ascension 
and  in  Jamaica.  In  this  latter  island  the  peacock,  also, 
“has  become  a maroon  bird.”  The  common  duck  wanders 
from  its  home  and  becomes  almost  wild  in  Norfolk.  Hybrids 
between  the  common  and  musk-duck  which  have  become  wild 
have  been  shot  in  North  America,  Belgium,  and  near  the 
Caspian  Sea.  The  goose  is  said  to  have  run  wild  in  La  Plata. 
The  common  dovecot  - pigeon  has  become  wild  at  J uan 


200 


DOMESTIC  riGEONS  : 


Chap.  VI 


Fernandez,  Norfolk  Island,  Ascension,  probably  at  Madeira,  on 
the  shores  of  Scotland,  and,  as  is  asserted,  on  the  banks  of  tlie 
Hudson  in  North  Anierica.^^  But  how  different  is  the  case, 
when  we  turn  to  the  eleven  chief  domestic  races  of  the  pigeon, 
which  are  supposed  by  some  authors  to  be  descended  from  so 
many  distinct  species ! no  one  has  ever  pretended  that  any 
one  of  these  races  has  been  found  wild  in  any  quarter  of  the 
world ; yet  they  have  been  transported  to  all  countries,  and 
some  of  them  must  have  been  carried  back  to  their  native 
homes.  On  the  view  that  all  the  races  are  the  product  of 
variation,  we  can  understand  why  they  have  not  become  feral, 
for  the  great  amount  of  modification  which  they  have  under- 
gone shows  how  long  and  how  thoroughly  they  have  been 
domesticated  ; and  this  would  unfit  them  for  a wild  life. 

Fourthli/. — If  it  be  assumed  that  the  characteristic  differences 
between  the  various  domestic  races  are  due  to  descent  from 
several  aboriginal  species,  we  must  conclude  that  man  chose 
for  domestication  in  ancient  times,  either  intentionally  or  by 
chance,  a most  abnormal  set  of  pigeons  ; for  that  species 
resembling  such  birds  as  Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  Barbs, 
Short-faced  Tumblers,  Turbits,  &c.,  would  be  in  the  highest 
degree  abnormal,  as  compared  with  all  the  existing  members 
of  the  great  pigeon  family,  cannot  be  doubted.  Thus  we 
should  have  to  believe  that  man  not  only  formerly  succeeded 
in  thoroughly  domesticating  several  highly  abnormal  species, 
but  that  these  same  species  have  since  all  become  extinct,  or 


^Vith  respect  to  feral  pigeons 
— for  Juan  Fernandez,  see  Bertero  in 
‘ Annal.  cles  Sc.  Nat.,’  tom.  xxi.  p.  351. 
For  Norfolk  Islands,  see  Rev.  E.  S. 
Dixon  in  the  ‘ Dovecote,’  1851,  p.  14, 
on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Gould.  For 
Ascension  I rely  on  MS.  information 
giren  me  by  Mr.  Layard.  For  the 
banks  of  the  Hudson,  see  Blyth  in 
‘Annals  of  Nat  Hist.,’ vol.  xx.,  1857, 
p.  511.  For  Scotland,  see  Macgillivray, 
‘British  Birds,’  vol.  i.  p.  275;  also 
Thompson’s  ‘Nat.  Hist,  of  Ireland, 
Birds,’  vol.  ii.  p.  11.  For  ducks,  see 
ReA\  E.  S Dixon,  ‘ Ornamental 
Poultry,’  1847,  p.  122.  For  the  feral 
hybrids  of  the  common  and  musk- 


ducks,  see  Audubon’s  ‘ American  Or- 
nithology,’ and  Selys-Longchamp’s 
‘ Hybrides  dans  la  Famille  des  Ana- 
tides.’  For  the  goose,  Isidore  Geoffroy 
St. -Hilaire,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,’  tom.  iii. 
p.  498.  For  guinea-fowls,  see  Gosse’s 
‘ Naturalist’s  Sojourn  in  Jamaica,^' 
p.  124;  and  his  ‘Birds  of  lamaica, 
for  fuller  particulars.  1 saw  thj 
wild  guinea-fowl  in  Ascension.  For 
the  peacock,  see  ‘A  Week  at  Por^ 
Royal,’  by  a competent  authority, 
Mr.  R.  Plill,  p.  42.  For  the  turkey 
I rely  on  oral  information ; I ascer^ 
tained  that  they  were  not  Curassows. 
With  respect  to  fowls  1 will  give  th«> 
references  in  the  next  chapter. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


201 


arc  at  least  now  unknown.  This  double  accident  is  so  ex- 
tremely improbable  that  the  assumed  existence  of  so  many 
abnormal  species  would  I’equire  to  be  supported  by  the 
strongest  evidence.  On  the  other  hand,  if  all  the  races  are 
descended  from  C.  livia,  we  can  understand,  as  will  hereafter 
be  more  fully  explained,  how  any  slight  deviation  in  structure 
which  first  appeared  would  continually  be  augmented  by  the 
preservation  of  the  most  strongly  marked  individuals ; and  as 
the  power  of  selection  would  be  applied  according  to  man’s 
fancy,  and  not  for  the  bird’s  own  good,  the  accumulated 
amount  of  deviation  would  certainly  be  of  an  abnormal 
nature  in  comparison  with  the  structure  of  pigeons  living  in 
a state  of  nature. 

I have  already  alluded  to  the  remarkable  fact  that  the  cha 
racteristic  differences  between  the  chief  domestic  races  are 
eminently  variable ; we  see  this  plainly  in  the  great  difference 
in  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers  in  the  Fantail,  in  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  crop  in  Pouters,  in  the  length  of  the  beak  in 
Tumblers,  in  the  state  of  the  wattle  in  Carriers  &c.  If  the?  e 
characters  are  the  result  of  successive  variations  added  together 
by  selection,  we  can  understand  why  they  should  be  so 
variable : for  these  are  the  very  parts  which  have  varied 
since  the  domestication  of  the  pigeon,  and  therefore  would  be 
likel}^  still  to  vary;  these  variations  moreover  have  been 
recently,  and  are  still  being  accumulated  by  man’s  selection; 
therefore  they  have  not  as  yet  become  firmly  fixed. 

Fifthly. — All  the  domestic  races  pair  readily  together,  and, 
what  is  equally  important,  their  mongrel  offspring  are  per- 
fectly fertile.  To  ascertain  this  fact  I made  many  experi- 
ments, which  are  given  in  the  note  below;  and  recently 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  made  similar  experiments  with  the  same 
result.^^  Tire  accurate  Neumeister  asserts  that  when  dovecots 


I have  drawn  ont  a lon^  table  of 
the  various  crosses  made  by  fanciers 
between  the  several  domestic  breeds 
but  I do  not  think  it  worth  while  pub- 
lishing. I have  myself  made  for  this 
special  purpose  many  crosses,  and  all 
were  perfectly  fertile.  I have  united 
In  one  bird  five  of  the  most  distinct 
races,  and  with  patience  I might  un- 


doubtedly have  thus  united  all.  The 
case  of  five  distinct  breeds  being 
blended  together  with  unimpaired  fer- 
tility is  important,  because  Gartner 
has  shown  that  it  is  a very  general, 
though  not,  as  he  thought,  universal 
rule,  that  complex  crosses  between 
several  species  are  excessively  sterilo, 
I have  met  with  only  two  or  three 


202 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  VI. 


aie  crossed  with  pigeons  of  any  other  breed,  the  mongrels  are 
extremely  fertile  and  hardy. MM.  Boita  d and  Corbie  affirm, 
after  their  great  experience,  that  the  more  distinct  the  breeds 
are  \s'hich  are  crossed,  the  more  productive  are  their  mongrel 
offspring.  I admit  that  the  doctrine  first  broached  by  Pallas 
is  highly  probable,  if  not  actually  proved,  namely,  that  closely 
allied  species,  which  in  a state  of  nature  or  when  first  captured 
would  have  been  in  some  degree  sterile  if  crossed,  lose  this 
sterility  after  a long  course  of  domestication  ; yet  when  wo 
consider  the  great  difference  between  such  races  as  Pouters, 
Carriers,  Kunts,  Fantails,  Turbits,  Tumblers,  &c.,  the  fact  of 
their  perfect,  or  even  increased,  fertility  when  intercrossed  in 
tlie  most  complicated  manner  becomes  a strong  ai’gumejit  in 
I’avour  of  their  having  all  descended  from  a single  species. 
This  argument  is  rendered  much  stronger  when  we  hear  (I 
append  in  a note  all  the  cases  which  I have  collected)  that 


cases  of  reported  sterility  in  the  off- 
spring of  certain  races  when  crossed. 
Pistor  (‘  Das  Ganze  der  Feldtau- 
benzucht,’  1831,  s.  15)  asserts  that  the 
mongrels  from  Barbs  and  Fantails 
are  sterile  : I have  proved  this  to  be 
erroneous,  not  only  by  crossing  those 
hybrids  with  several  other  hybrids  of 
the  same  parentage,  but  by  the  more 
severe  test  of  pairing  brother  and 
sister  hybrids  inter  se,  and  they  were 
perfectlif  fertile.  Temminck  has  stated 
(‘  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des  Pigeons,’  tom.  i. 
p.  197)  that  the  Turbit  or  Owl  will 
not  cross  readily  with  other  breeds : 
but  my  Turbits  crossed,  when  left  free 
with  Almond  Tumblers  and  with 
Trumpeters ; the  same  thing  has 
occurred  (Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon.  ‘ The 
Dovecot,’ p.  107)  between  Turbits  and 
Dovecots  and  Nuns.  I have  crossed 
Turbits  with  Barbs,  as  has  M.  Boitard 
(p,  34),  who  says  the  hybrids  were 
very  fertile.  Hybrids  from  a Turbit 
and  Fantail  have  been  known  to  breed 
inter  se  (Riedel,  ‘ Taubenzucht,’  s.  25, 
and  Bechstein,  ‘ Naturgesch.  Deutsch.’ 
B.  iv.  s.  44.  Turbits  (Riedel,  s.  26) 
have  been  crossed  with  Pouters  and 
uith  Jacobins,  and  with  a hybrid 


Jacobin-trumpeter  (Riedel,  s.  27)* 
The  latter  author  has,  however,  made 
some  vague  statements  (s.  22)  on  the 
sterility  of  Turbits  when  crossed  with 
certain  other  crossed  breeds.  But  I 
have  little  doubt  that  the  Rev.  E.  S. 
Dixon’s  explanation  of  such  statements 
is  correct,  viz.  that  individual  birds 
both  with  Turbits  and  other  oreeds  are 
occasionally  sterile. 

‘ Das  Ganze  der  Taubenzucht,’ 

s.  18. 

‘ Les  Pigeons,’  &c.,  p.  35. 

Domestic  pigeons  pair  readily 
with  the  allied  C.  cenas  (Bechstein, 
‘ Naturgesch.  Deutschlauds,’  B.  iv.  s. 
3)  ; and  Mr.  Brent  has  made  the  same 
cross  several  times  in  England,  but  the 
young  were  very  apt  to  die  at  about 
ten  days  old;  one  hybrid  which  he 
reared  (from  C.  cenas  and  a male  Anv 
werp  Carrier)  paired  with  a Dragon, 
but  never  laid  eggs.  Bechstein  fur- 
ther states  (s.  26)  that  the  domestic 
pigeon  will  cross  with  C.  palumbusy 
Turtur  risorirc  and  T.  vulgaris,  but 
nothing  is  said  of  the  fertility  of  the 
hybrids,  and  this  would  have  been 
mentioned  had  the  fact  been  ascer- 
tained. In  the  Zoological  Gardens 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PAREiyfTAGE. 


203 


hardly  a single  well-ascertained  instance  is  known  of  hybrids 
between  two  true  species  of  pigeons  being  fertile,  inter  se,  or 
even  when  crossed  with  one  of  their  pure  parents. 

Sixthly. — Excluding  certain  important  characteristic  differ- 
ences, the  chief  races  agree  most  closely  both  with  each  other 
and  with  C.livia  in  all  other  respects.  As  previously  observed, 
all  are  eminently  sociable ; all  dislike  to  perch  or  roost,  and 
refuse  to  build  in  trees:  all  lay  tw^o  eggs,  and  this  is  not  a 
universal  rule  with  the  Columbidae ; all,  as  far  as  I can  hear, 
require  the  same  time  for  hatching  their  eggs  ; all  can  endui  e 
the  same  great  range  of  climate ; all  prefer  the  same  food,  and 
are  passionately  fond  of  salt;  all  exhibit  (with  the  asserted 
exception  of  the  Finnikin  and  Turner  which  do  not  differ  much 
in  any  other  character)  the  same  peculiar  gestures  when  court- 
ing the  females ; and  all  (with  the  exception  of  Ti  umpeters 


(M3,  report  to  me  from  Mr.  James 
Hunt)  a male  hybrid  from  Turtur 
vulgaris  and  a domestic  pigeon  “ paired 
with  several  different  species  of 
pigeons  and  doves,  but  none  of  the 
eggs  were  good.”  Hybrids  from  C. 
CB/iasand  gymnoiohthahnos  were  sterile. 
In  Loudon’s  ‘ Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.’  vol. 
vii.  1834,  p.  154,  it  is  said  that  a male 
hybrid  (from  Turtur  vulgaris  male, 
and  the  cream-coloured  2’.  risoria 
female)  paired  during  two  years  with 
a female  T.  risoria,  and  the  latter  laid 
many  eggs,  out  all  were  sterile. 
MM.  Boitard  andCorbie'(‘Les  Pigeons,’ 
p.  235)  state  that  the  hybrids  from 
these  two  turtle-doves  are  invariably 
sterile  both  inter  se  and  with  either 
pure  parent.  The  experiment  was 
tried  by  M.  Corbie  avec  une  espbee 
d’obstination and  likewise  by  M. 
IMauduyt,  and  by  M.  Vieillot.  Tern- 
minck  also  found  the  hybrids  from 
these  two  species  quite  barren.  There- 
fore, when  Bechstein  (‘  Naturgesch. 
Deutschlands  Vogel,’  B.  4,  s.  101) 
asserts  that  the  hybrids  from  these 
two  turtle-doves  propagate  inter  se 
equally  well  with  pure  species,  and 
when  a writer  in  the  ‘Field ’news- 
paper (in  a letter  dated  Nov.  10th, 
1853)  makes  a similar  assertion,  it 


would  appear  that  there  must  be  some 
mistake  ; though  what  the  mistake  is 
I know  not,  as  Bechstein  at  least  must 
have  known  the  white  variety  of  T. 
risoria  : it  would  be  an  unparalleled 
fact  if  the  same  two  species  sometimes 
produced  extremely  fertile,  and  some- 
times extremely  barren,  offspring.  In 
the  MS.  report  from  the  Zoological 
Gardens  it  is  said  that  hybrids  from 
Turtur  vulgaris  and  suraiensis,  and 
from  T.  vulgaris  and  Ectopistes  migra* 
torius,  were  sterile.  Two  of  the  latter 
male  hybrids  paired  with  their  pure 
parents,  viz.  Turtur  vulgaris  and  the 
Ectopistes,  and  likewise  with  T,  risoria 
and  with  Columloa  cenas,  and  many 
eggs  were  produced,  but  all  were 
barren.  At  Paris,  hybrids  have  been 
raised  (Isid.  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire, 
‘Hist.  Nat.  Geherale,’  tom.  iii.  p.  180) 
from  Turtur  auritus  with  T.  cam- 
bayensis  and  with  T.  suratensis ; but 
nothing  is  said  of  their  fertility.  At 
the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London  the 
Goura  coronata  and  victories  produced 
a hybrid  which  paired  with  the  pure 
G.  coronata,  and  laid  several  eggs,  b;it 
these  proved  barren.  In  1860  Columha 
gymnophthalmos  and  maculosa  pro- 
duced  hybrids  in  these  same  gardens 


204 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


CriAP  VI 


and  Laughers,  which  likewise  do  not  differ  much  in  any  other 
character)  coo  in  the  same  peculiar  manner,  unlike  the  voice 
of  any  other  wild  pigeon.  All  the  coloured  breeds  display 
the  same  peculiar  metallic  tints  on  the  breast,  a character  far 
from  general  with  pigeons.  Each  race  presents  nearly  the 
same  range  of  variation  in  colour ; and  in  most  of  the  races 
wo  have  the  same  singular  correlation  between  the  develop- 
ment of  down  in  the  young  and  the  future  colour  of  plumage. 
All  have  the  proportional  length  of  their  toes,  and  of  their 
primary  wing-feathers,  nearly  the  same, — characters  which 
are  apt  to  differ  in  the  several  members  of  the  Columbidee. 
In  those  races  which  present  some  remarkable  deviation  of 
structure,  such  as  in  the  tail  of  Fantails,  crop  of  Pouters,  beak 
of  Carriers  and  Tumblers,  &c.,  the  other  parts  remain  nearly 
unaltered.  Now  every  naturalist  will  admit  that  it  would  be 
scarcely  possible  to  pick  out  a dozen  natural  species  in  any 
family  which  should  agree  closely  in  habits  and  in  general 
structure,  and  yet  should  differ  greatly  in  a few  characters 
alone.  This  fact  is  explicable  through  the  doctrine  of  natural 
selection  ; for  each  successive  modification  of  structure  in  each 
natural  species  is  preserved,  solely  because  it  is  of  service ; 
and  such  modifications  when  largely  accumulated  imply  a 
great  change  in  the  habits  of  life,  and  this  will  almost  cer- 
tainly lead  to  other  changes  of  structure  throughout  the  whole 
organization.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  several  races  of  the 
pigeon  have  been  produced  by  man  through  selection  and 
variation,  we  can  readily  understand  how  it  is  that  they 
should  still  all  resemble  each  other  in  habits  and  in  those 
many  characters  which  man  has  not  cared  to  modify,  whilst 
they  differ  to  so  prodigious  a degree  in  those  parts  which 
have  struck  his  eye  or  pleased  his  fancy. 

Besides  the  points  above  enumerated,  in  which  all  the 
domestic  races  resemble  G.  Uvia  and  each  other,  there  is  one 
which  deserves  special  notice.  The  wild  rock-pigeon  is  of  a 
slaty-blue  colour ; the  wings  are  crossed  by  two  burs  ; the 
croup  varies  in  colour,  being  generally  white  in  the  pigeon 
of  Europe,  and  blue  in  that  of  India  ; the  tail  has  a black  bar 
close  to  the  end,  and  the  outer  webs  of  the  outer  tail-feathers 
are  edged  with  white,  except  near  the  tips.  These  combined 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR. 


205 


characters  are  not  found  in  any  wild  pigeon  besides  C.  livia. 
I have  looked  carefully  through  the  great  collections  of 
pigeons  in  the  British  Museum,  and  I find  that  a dark  bar  at 
the  end  of  the  tail  is  common  ; that  the  white  edging  to  the 
outer  tail-feathers  is  not  rare  ; but  that  the  white  croup  is 
extremely  rare,  and  the  two  black  bars  on  the  wings  occur  in 
no  other  pigeon,  excepting  the  alpine  C.  leuconota  and  G. 
rupestris  of  Asia.  Now  if  we  turn  to  the  domestic  races,  it  is 
highly  remarkable,  as  an  eminent  fancier,  Mr.  Wicking, 
observed  to  me,  that,  whenever  a blue  bird  appears  in  any 
race,  the  wings  almost  invariabl}^  show  the  double  black  bars.''^^ 
The  primary  wing-feathers  may  be  white  or  black,  and  the 
whole  body  may  be  of  any  colour,  but  if  the  wing  coverts  are 
blue,  the  two  black  bars  are  sure  to  appear.  I have  mj^self 
seen,  or  acquired  trustworthy  evidence,  as  given  below,^^  of 


There  is  one  exception  to  the 
rule,  namely,  in  a sub-variety  of  the 
Swallow  of  German  origin,  which  is 
figured  by  Neumeister,  and  was  shown 
to  me  by  Mr.  Wicking.  This  bird  is 
blue,  but  has  not  the  black  wing-bars  ; 
for  our  object,  however,  in  tracing  the 
descent  of  the  chief  races,  this  ex- 
ception signifies  the  less  as  the  Swallow 
approaches  closely  in  structure  to  C. 
livia.  In  many  sub-varieties  the  black 
bars  are  replaced  by  bars  of  various 
colours.  The  figures  giA’-cu  by  Neu- 
meister are  sufficient  to  shoAv  that,  if 
the  wings  alone  are  blue,  the  black 
wing-bars  appear. 

I have  observed  blue  birds  with 
all  the  aboA'e-mentioned  marks  in  the 
following  races,  which  seemed  to  be 
perfectly  pure,  and  were  shoAvn  at 
various  exhibitions.  Pouters,  with 
the  double  black  wing-bars,  with 
Avhite  croup,  dark  bar  to  end  of  tail, 
and  white  edging  to  outer  tail-feathers. 
Turbits,Avith  all  these  same  characters. 
Fantails  with  the  same  ; but  the  croup 
in  some  tvas  bluish  or  pure  blue.  Mr. 
Wicking  bred  blue  Fantails  from  two 
black  birds.  Carriers  (including  the 
Bagadotten  of  Neumeister)  with  all 
the  marks : two  birds  tvhich  I ex- 
amined had  white,  and  two  had  blue 


croups  ; the  tvhite  edging  to  the  outer 
tail-feathers  was  not  present  in  all. 
Mr.  Corker,  a great  breeder,  assures 
me  that,  if  black  carriers  are  matched 
for  many  successive  generations,  the 
offspring  become  first  ash-coloured, 
and  then  blue  with  black  wing-bars. 
Runts  of  the  elongated  breed  had  the 
same  marks,  but  the  croup  was  pale 
blue ; the  outer  tail-feathers  had 
white  edges.  Neumeister  figures  the 
great  Florence  Runt  of  a blue  colour 
Avith  black  bars.  Jacobins  are  A^ery 
rarely  blue,  but  I have  received  au- 
thentic accounts  of  at  least  two  in- 
stances of  the  blue  variety  with  black 
bars  having  appeared  in  England; 
blue  Jacobins  Avere  bred  by  Mr.  Brent 
from  tAVO  black  birds.  I have  seen 
common  Tumblers,  both  Indian  and 
English,  and  Short-faced  Tumblers,  of 
a blue  colour,  with  black  wing-bars, 
Avith  the  black  bar  at  the  end  of  the 
tail,  and  Avith  the  outer  tail-feathers 
edged  Avith  white;  the  croup  in  all 
Avas  blue,  or  extremely  pale  blue, 
never  absolutely  Avhite.  Blue  Barbs 
and  Trumpeters  seem  to  be  excessiA'ely 
rare  ; but  Neumeister,  Avho  may  be 
implicitly  trusted,  figures  blue  A’arie- 
ties  of  both,  Avith  black  wing-bars.  Mr. 
Brent  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  a 


200 


DOMESTIC  TTGEONS  *. 


Chap.  Y1 


bhio  birds  with  black  bars  on  tlie  wing,  with  the  croup 
either  white  or  very  pale  or  dark  blue,  with  the  tail  having 
a terminal  black  bar,  and  with  the  outer  feathers  externally 
edged  with  white  or  very  pale  coloured,  in  the  following  races, 
which,  as  I carefully  obsoiwed  in  each  case,  appeared  to  bo 
perfectly  true:  namely,  in  Pouters,  Fantails,  Tumblers, 
Jacobins,  Turbits,  Barbs,  Carriers,  Punts  of  three  distinct 
varieties.  Trumpeters,  Swallows,  and  in  many  other  toy- 
pigeons,  which  as  being  closely  allied  to  C.  lima,  are  not 
worth  enumerating.  Thus  we  see  that,  in  purely  bred  races 
of  every  kind  known  in  Europe,  blue  birds  occasionally  appear 
having  all  the  marks  which  characterise  G.  livia,  and  which 
concur  in  no  other  wild  species.  Mr.  Blyth,  also,  has  made 
the  same  observation  with  respect  to  the  various  domestic 
races  known  in  India. 

Certain  variations  in  the  plumage  are  equally  common  in 
the  wild  C.  livia,  in  dovecot-pigeons,  and  in  all  the  most 
higliiy  modified  races.  Thus,  in  all,  the  croup  varies  from 
white  to  blue,  being  most  frequently  white  in  Europe,  and 
very  generally  blue  in  India. We  have  seen  that  the  wild 
C.  livia  in  Europe,  and  dovecots  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
often  have  the  upper  wing-coverts  chequered  with  black; 
and  all  the  most  distinct  races,  when  blue,  are  occasional!} 
chequered  in  precisely  the  same  manner.  Thus  I have  seen 
Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  Turbits,  Tumblers  (Indian  and 
English),  Swallows,  Bald-pates,  and  other  toy-pigedns  blue 
and  cheque:  ed  ; and  Mr.  Esquilant  has  seen  a chequered  Runt. 
I bred  from  two  pure  blue  Tumblers  a chequered  bird. 


The  facts  hitherto  given  refer  to  the  occasional  appearance 
in  pure  races  of  blue  birds- with  black  wing-bars,  and  likewise 


blue  Barb  ; and  Mr,  H.  Weir,  as  I am 
informed  by  Mr.  Teget  i.eier,  once 
bred  a silver  (which  means  very  pale 
blue)  Barb  from  two  yellow  birds. 

Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that  all 
the  domestic  races  in  India  have  the 
croup  blue  ; but  this  is  not  invariable, 
for  I possess  a very  pale  blue  Simmali 
pigeon  with  the  croup  perfectly  white, 
sent  to  mo  by  Sir  W.  Elliot  from 


Madras.  A slaty-blue  and  chequered 
Nakshi  pigeon  has  some  white  feathers 
on  the  croup  alone.  In  some  other 
Indian  pigeons  there  were  a few  white 
feathers  confined  to  the  croup,  and  I 
have  noticed  the  same  fact  in  a carrier 
from  Persia.  The  Java  Fantail  (im- 
ported into  Amoy,  and  thence  sent 
me)  has  a perfectly  white  croup. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIK  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR. 


207 


of  blue  and  cbequered  birds ; but  it  will  now  be  seen  that 
when  two  birds  belonging  to  distinct  races  are  crossed, 
neither  of  which  have,  nor  probably  have  had  during  many 
generations,  a trace  of  blue  in  their  plumage,  or  a trace  of 
wing-bars  and  the  other  characteristic  marks,  they  very 
frequently  produce  mongrel  offspring  of  a blue  colour,  some- 
times chequered,  with  black  wing-bars,  &c. ; or  if  not  of  a 
blue  colour,  yet  with  the  several  characteristic  mark s more 
or  less  plainly  developed.  I was  led  to  investigate  this 
subject  from  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbio^^  having  asserted  that 
from  crosses  between  certain  breeds  it  is  rare  to  get  anything 
but  bisets  or  dovecot  pigeons,  which,  as  we  know,  are  blue 
birds  with  the  usual  characteristic  marks.  We,  shall  here- 
after see  that  this  subject  possesses,  independently  of  our 
present  object,  considerable  interest,  so  that  I will  give  the 
results  of  my  own  trials  in  full.  I selected  for  experiment 
races  which,  when  pure,  very  seldom  produce  birds  of  a blue 
colour,  or  have  bars  on  their  wings  and  tail. 

The  Nun  is  white,  with  the  head,  tail,  and  primary  wing- 
feathers  black ; it  is  a breed  which  was  established  as  long- 
ago  as  the  year  1600.  I crossed  a male  Nun  with  a female 
red  common  Tumbler,  which  latter  variety  generally  breeds 
true.  Thus  neither  parent  had  a trace  of  blue  in  the  plumage, 
or  of  bars  on  the  wing  and  tail.  I should  premise  that 
common  Tumblers  are  rarely  blue  in  England.  From  the 
above  cross  I reared  several  young:  one  was  red  over  the 
whole  back,  but  with  the  tail  as  blue  as  that  of  the  rock- 
pigeon  ; the  terminal  bar,  however,  was  absent,  but  the  outer 
feathers  were  edged  with  white : a second  and  third  nearly 
resembled  the  first,  but  the  tail  in  both  presented  a trace  of 
the  bar  at  the  end : a fourth  was  brownish,  and  the  wings 
showed  a trace  of  the  double  bar : a fifth  was  pale  blue  over 
the  whole  breast,  back,  croup,  and  tail,  but  the  neck  and 
primary  wing-feathers  were  reddish;  the  wings  presented 
two  distinct  bars  of  a red  colour  ; the  tail  was  not  barred,  but 
the  outer  feathers  were  edged  with  white.  I crossed  this 
last  curiously  coloured  bird  with  a black  mongiel  of  com- 
plicated descent,  namely,  from  a black  Barb,  a Spot,  and 
‘ Les  Pigeons,’  &c.,  p.  37. 


208 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS: 


Chap.  VI. 


Alinond-tiimbler,  so  that  the  two  young  birds  produced  from 
this  cross  included  the  bleed  of  five  varieties,  none  of  which 
had  a trace  of  blue  or  of  wing  and  tail-bars  : one  of  the  two 
young  birds  was  brownish -black,  with  black  wing-bars ; the 
other  was  reddish-dim,  with  reddish  wing-bars,  paler  than 
the  rest  of  the  body,  with  the  croup  pale  blue,  the  tail  bluisli 
with  a trace  of  the  terminal  bar. 

Mr.  Eaton matched  two  Short-faced  Tumblers,  namely,  a 
splash  cock  and  kite  hen  (neither  of  which  are  blue  or  barred), 
and  from  the  first  nest  he  got  a perfect  blue  bird,  and  from  the 
second  a silver  or  pale  blue  bird,  both  of  which,  in  accordance 
with  all  analogy,  no  doubt  presented  the  usual  cbaracteristic 
marks. 

I crossed  two  male  black  Barbs  with  two  female  red  Spots. 
These  latter  have  the  whole  body  and  wings  white,  with  a 
spot  on  the  forehead,  tiie  tail  and  tail-coverts  red ; the  race 
existed  at  least  as  long  ago  as  1676,  and  now  breeds  perfectly 
true,  as  was  known  to  be  the  case  in  the  year  1735.'^^  Barbs 
are  uniformly-coloured  birds,  with  rarely  even  a trace  of  bars 
on  the  wing  or  tail;  they  are  known  to  breed  very  true.  The 
mongrels  thus  raised  were  black  or  nearly  black,  or  dark  or 
pale  brown,  sometimes  slightly  piebald  with  white ; of  these 
birds  no  le>  s than  six  presented  double  wing-bars ; in  two 
the  bars  were  conspicuous  and  quite  black ; in  seven  some 
white  feathers  appeared  on  the  croup ; and  in  two  or  three 
there  was  a trace  of  the  terminal  bar  to  the  tail,  but  in  none 
were  the  outer  tail-feathers  edged  with  white. 

I crossed  black  Barbs  (of  two  excellent  strains)  with  purely- 
bred,  snow-white  Fantails.  The  mongrels  were  generally 
quite  black,  with  a few  of  the  primary  wing  and  tail  feathers 
white : others  were  dark  reddish-brown,  and  others  snow- 
white : none  had  a trace  of  ’ wing-bars  or  of  the  white  croup. 
I then  paired  together  two  of  these  mongrel-^,  namely,  a 
brown  and  black  bird,  and  their  offspring  displayed  wing- 
bars,  faint,  but  of  a darker  brown  than  the  rest  of  body.  In  a 
■second  brood  from  the  same  parents  a brown  bird  was 
produced,  with  several  white  feathers  confined  to  the  croup. 

‘Treatise  on  Pigeons,’  1858,  p.  **  J.  Moore’s  ‘ Columbarium,’ 1 735; 

in  J.  M.  Eaton’s  edition,  1852,  p.  71. 


145. 


Ghap.  YI. 


THE  IE  EE  VERSION  IN  COLOUR. 


209 


I crossed  a male  dun  Dragon  belonging  to  a family  whicli 
had  been  dun-coloured  without  wing-bars  during  several 
generations,  v/ith  a uniform  red  Barb  (bred  from  two  black 
Barbs) ; and  the  offspring  presented  decided  but  faint  traces 
of  wing-bars.  I crossed  a uniform  red  male  Eunt  with  a 
White  trumpeter ; and  the  offspring  had  a slaty-blue  tail  with 
a bar  at  the  end,  and  with  the  outer  feathers  edged  with 
white.  I also  crossed  a female  black  and  white  chequered 
Trumpeter  (of  a different  strain  from  the  last)  with  a male 
Almond- tumbler,  neither  of  which  exhibited  a trace  of  blue, 
or  of  the  white  croup,  or  of  the  bar  at  end  of  tail : nor  is-  it 
probable  that  the  progenitors  of  these  two  birds  had  for 
many  generations  exhibited  any  of  these  characters,  for  I 
have  never  even  heard  of  a blue  Trumpeter  in  this  country, 
and  my  Almond-tumbler  was  purely  bred ; yet  the  tail  of  this 
mongrel  was  bluish,  with  a broad  black  bar  at  the  end,  and 
the  croup  was  perfectly  white.  It  may  be  observed  in  several 
of  these  cases,  that  the  tail  first  shows  a tendency  to  become 
by  reversion  blue  ; and  this  fact  of  the  persistency  of  colour  in 
the  tail  and  tail-coverts  will  surprise  no  one  who  has  attended 
to  the  crossing  of  pigeons. 

The  last  case  which  I will  give  is  the  most  curious.  I 
paired  a mongrel  female  Barb-fantail  with  a mongrel  male 
Barb -spot;  neither  of  which  mongrels  had  the  least  blue 
about  them.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  blue  Barbs  are 
excessively  rare  ; that  Spots,  as  has  been  already  stated,  were 
perfectly  characterised  in  the  year  1676,  and  breed  perfectly 
true ; this  likewise  is  the  case  with  white  Fantails,  so  much 
so  that  I have  never  heard  of  white  Fantails  throwing  any 
other  colour.  Nevertheless  the  offspring  from  the  above  two 
mongrels  was  of  exactly  the  same  blue  tint  as  that  of  the 
V,  ild  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands  over  the  whole 


I could  give  numerous  examples  ; 
two  will  siiffice.  A mongrel,  whose 
four  grandparents  were  a white  Turbit, 
white  Trumpeter,  white  Fantail,  and 
blue  Pouter,  was  white  all  over, 
except  a very  fev/  feathers  about  the 
head  and  on  the  wings,  hut  the  w^hole 
Uiil  and  tail-coverts  were  dark  bluish- 

15 


grey.  Another  mongrel  whose  four 
grandparents  were  a red  Ruiit,  white 
Trumpeter,  white  Fantail,  and  the 
^ame  blue  Pouter,  was  pure  white  tal 
over,  except  the  taiP  and  upper  aill- 
coverts,  which  wore  pale  fawn,  and 
except  the  faintest  trace  of  double 
wing-bars  of  the  same  pale  fawn  tint 


210 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  I 


Chap,  VI 


bade  and  wings ; the  double  black  wing-bars  were  equally 
conspicuous ; the  tail  was  exactly  alike  in  all  its  characters, 
and  the  croup  was  pure  white  ; the  head,  however,  was  tinted 
with  a shade  of  red,  evidently  derived  from  the  Spot,  and  was 
of  a paler  blue  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  as  was  the  stomach, 
So  that  two  black  Barbs,  a red  Spot,  and  a white  Fantail,  as 
the  four  purely- bred  grandparents,  produced  a bird  exhibiting 
the  general  blue  colour,  together  with  every  characteristic 
mark,  the  wild  Columha  lima. 

With  respect  to  crossed  breeds  frequently  producing  blue 
birds  chequered  with  black,  and  resembling  in  all  res[)ects 
both  the  dovecot-pigeon  and  the  chequered  wild  variety  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  the  statement  before  referred  to  by  MM. 
Boitard  and  Corbie  would  almost  suffice ; but  I will  give 
three  instances  of  the  appearance  of  such  birds  from  crosses 
in  which  one  alone  of  the  parents  or  great-grandparents  was 
blue,  but  not  chequered.  I crossed  a male  blue  Turbit  with  a 
snow-white  Trumpeter,  and  the  following  j^'ear  with  a dark, 
leaden-brown,  Short-faced  Tumbler ; the  offspring  from  the 
first  cross  were  as  perfectly  chequered  as  an}^  dovecot-pigeon ; 
and  from  the  second,  so  much  so  as  to  be  nearly  as  black  as 
the  most  darkly  chequered  rock -pigeon  from  Madeira.  Another 
bird,  whose  great-grandparents  were  a white  Trumpeter,  a 
white  Fantail,  a white  Eed-spot,  a red  Eunt,  and  a blue  Pouter, 
was  slaty-blue  and  chequered  exactly  like  a dovecot-pigeon. 
I may  here  add  a remark  made  to  me  V)y  Mr.  Wicking,  who 
has  had  more  experience  than  any  other  person  in  England  in 
breeding  pigeons  of  various  colours  : namely,  that  when  a blue, 
or  a blue  and  chequered  bird,  having  black  wing-bars,  once 
appears  in  any  race  and  is  allow*ed  to  breed,  these  eharacters 
are  so  strongly  transmitted  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
eradicate  them. 

What,  then,  are  we  to  conclude  from  this  tendency  in  all 
the  chief  domestic  races,  bolh  when  purely  bred  and  more 
especiall}^  when  intercrossed,  to  produce  offspring  of  a blue 
colour,  with  the  same  char aet eristic  marks,  varying  in  the 
same  manner,  as  in  Columbia  livia  ? If  we  admit  that  these 
races  are  all  descended  from  0.  livia,  no  breeder  will  doubt 
that  the  occasional  appearance  of  blue  birds  thus  characterised 


CUAP.  VI. 


THEIR  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR. 


211 


is  accounted  for  on  the  well-known  principle  of  “throwing 
back  ” or  reversion.  Why  crossing  should  give  so  strong  a 
tendency  to  reversion,  we  do  not  with  certainty  know ; hut 
abundant  evidence  of  this  fact  will  be  given  in  the  following 
chapters.  It  is  probable  that  I might  have  bred  even  for 
a century  pure  black  Barbs,  Spots,  Nuns,  white  Fantails, 
Trumpeters,  &c.,  without  obtaining  a single  blue  or  barred 
bird ; yet  by  crossing  these  breeds  I reared  in  the  first  and 
second  generation,  during  the  course  of  only  three  or  four 
years,  a considerable  number  of  young  birds,  more  or  less 
plainly  coloured  blue,  and  with  most  of  the  characteristic 
marks.  When  black  and  white,  or  black  and  red  birds,  are 
crossed,  it  would  appear  that  a slight  tendency  exists  in  both 
parents  to  produce  blue  offspring,  and  that  this,  when  com- 
bined, overpowers  the  separate  tendeney  in  either  parent  to 
produce  black,  or  white,  or  red  offspring. 

If  we  rejeet  the  belief  that  all  the  races  of  the  pigeon  are 
the  modified  descendants  of  G.  licia,  and  suppose  that  they 
are  deseended  from  several  aboriginal  stocks,  then  we  must 
choose  between  the  three  following  assumptions  : firstly,  that 
at  least  eight  or  nine  species  formerly  existed  which  were 
aboriginally  coloured  in  various  ways,  but  have  since  varied 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  so  as  to  assume  the  eolonring 
of  C.  livia  ; but  this  assumption  throws  not  the  least  light  on 
the  appearance  of  such  colours  and  marks  when  the  races  are 
crossed.  Or  secondly,  we  may  assume  that  the  aboriginal 
species  were  all  coloured  blue,  and  had  the  wing-bars  and 
other  characteristic  marks  of  C.  livia, — a supposition  which  is 
highly  improbable,  as  besides  this  one  speeies  no  existing 
member  of  the  Columbidse  presents  these  combined  eha- 
racters;  and  it  would  not  be  possible  to  find  any  other 
instance  of  several  species  identical  in  plumage,  yet  as 
different  in  important  points  of  structure  as  are  Pouters, 
Pan  tails,  Carriers,  Tumblers,  &c.  Or  lastly,  we  may  assume 
that  all  the  races,  whether  descended  from  C.  livia  or  from 
several  aboriginal  species,  although  they  have  been  bred 
with  so  much  care  and  are  so  highly  valued  by  fanciers,  have 
all  been  crossed  within  a dozen  or  score  of  generations  with 
(7.  livia,  and  have  thus  acquired  their  tendency  to  produce 


212 


DOMESTIC  pigeons: 


Chap.  \ 1 


blue  birds  with  the  several  characteristic  marks.  I have  said 
that  it  must  be  assumed  that  each  race  has  been  crossed  with 
C.  livia  within  a dozen,  or,  at  the  utmost,  within  a score  ot 
generations ; for  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  crossed 
offspring  ever  revert  to  one  of  their  ancestors  when  removed 
by  a greater  number  of  generations.  In  a breed  which  has 
been  crossed  only  once,  the  tendency  to  reversion  will 
naturally  become  less  and  less  in  the  succeeding  generations, 
as  in  each  there  will  be  less  and  less  of  the  blood  of  the 
foreign  breed ; but  when  there  has  been  no  cross  with  a 
distinct  breed,  and  there  is  a tendency  in  both  parents  to 
revert  to  some  long-lost  character,  this  tendency,  for  all  that 
we  can  see  to  the  contrary,  may  be  transmitted  undiminished 
for  an  indefinite  number  of  generations.  These  two  distinct 
cases  of  reversion  are  often  confounded  together  by  those 
who  have  written  on  inheritance. 

Considering,  on  the  one  hand,  the  improbability  of  the 
three  assumptions  which  have  just  been  discussed,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  how  simply  the  facts  are  explained  on  the 
principle  of  reversion,  we  may  conclude  thal:  the  occasional 
appearance  in  all  the  races,  both  when  purely  bred  and  more 
especially  when  crossed,  of  blue  birds,  sometimes  chequered, 
with  double  wing-bars,  with  white  or  blue  croups,  with  a 
bar  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  with  the  outer  tail-feathers 
edged  with  white,  affords  an  argument  of  the  greatest  weight 
in  favour  of  the  view  that  all  are  descended  from  Golumba  livia, 
including  under  this  name  the  three  or  four  wild  varieties  or 
sub-species  before  enumerated. 

To  sum  up  the  six  foregoing  arguments,  which  are  opposed 
to  the  belief  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  the  descendants 
of  at  least  eight  or  nine  or  perhaps  a dozen  species ; for  the 
crossing  of  any  less  number  would  not  yield  the  characteristic 
differences  between  the  several  races.  Firstly,  the  impi’oba- 
bility  that  so  many  species  should  still  exist  somewhere,  but 
be  unknown  to  ornithologists,  or  that  they  should  have 
become  within  the  historical  period  extinct,  although  man 
has  had  so  little  influence  in  exterminating  the  wild  G.  livia. 
Secondly,  the  improbability  of  man  in  former  times  having 
thoroughly  domesticated  and  rendered  fertile  under  confine- 


Chap.  VL 


THEIR  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR. 


213 


ment  so  many  species.  Thirdly,  these  supposed  species  having 
nowhere  become  feral.  Fourthly,  the  extraordinary  fact  that 
man  should,  intentionally  or  by  chance,  have  chosen  for 
domestication  several  species,  extremely  abnormal  in  cha- 
racter; and  furthermore,  the  points  of  structure  which 
render  these  supposed  species  so  abnormal  being  now  highly 
variable.  Fifthly,  the  fact  of  all  the  races,  though  diHering 
ill  many  important  points  of  structure,  ]iroducing  perfectly 
fertile  mongrels ; whilst  all  the  hybrids  which  have  been 
produced  between  even  closely  allied  species  in  the  pigeon- 
family  are  sterile.  Sixthly,  the  remarkable  statements  just 
given  on  the  tendency  in  all  the  races,  both  when  purely 
bred  and  when  crossed,  to  revert  in  numerous  minute  details 
of  colouring  to  the  character  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon,  and  to 
vary  in  a similar  manner.  To  these  arguments  may  be 
added  the  extreme  improbability  that  a number  of  species 
formerly  existed,  which  differed  greatly  from  each  other  in 
some  few  points,  but  which  resembled  each  other  as  closely 
as  do  the  domestic  races  in  other  points  of  structure,  in 
voice,  and  in  all  their  habits  of  life.  When  these  several 
facts  and  arguments  are  fairly  taken  into  consideration,  it. 
would  require  an  overwhelming  amount  of  evidence  to  make 
us  admit  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  descended  from 
several  aboriginal  stocks;  and  of  such  evidence  there  is 
absolutely  none. 

The  belief  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  descended  from 
several  wild  stocks  no  doubt  has  arisen  from  the  apparent 
improbability  of  such  great  modifications  of  structure  having 
been  effected  since  man  first  domesticated  the  rock-pigeon. 
Nor  am  I surprised  at  any  degree  of  hesitation  in  admitting 
their  common  parentage:  formerly,  when  I went  into  my 
aviaries  and  watched  such  birds  as  Pouters,  Carriers,  Barbs, 
Fan  tails,  and  Short-faced  Tumblers,  &c.,  I could  not  persuade 
myself  that  all  had  descended  from  the  same  wild  stock, 
and  that  man  had  consequently  in  one  sense  created  these 
remarkable  modifications.  Therefore  I have  argued  the 
question  of  their  origin  at  great,  and,  as  some  will  think, 
superfluous  length. 

Finally,  in  favour  of  the  belief  that  all  the  races  are 


214 


DOMESTIC  pigeons: 


CllAl-  VI 


descended  from  a single  stock,  we  have  in  Columha  livia  a 
still  existing  and  widely  distributed  species,  which  can  he 
and  has  been  domesticated  in  various  countries.  This  species 
agrees  in  most  points  of  structure  and  in  all  its  habits  of 
life,  as  well  as  occasionally  in  every  detail  of  plumage,  with 
the  several  domestic  races.  It  breeds  freely  with  them,  and 
produces  fertile  offspring.  It  varies  in  a state  of  nature,^^ 
and  still  more  so  when  semi-domesticated,  as  shown  by 
comparing  the  Sierra  Leone  pigeons  with  those  of  India,  or 
with  those  which  apparently  have  run  wild  in  Madeira.  It 
has  undergone  a still  greater  amount  of  variation  in  the  case 
of  the  numerous  toy-pigeons,  which  no  one  supposes  to  be 
descended  from  distinct  species ; yet  some  of  these  toy- 
pigeons  have  transmitted  their  character  truly  for  centuries. 
Why,  then,  should  we  hesitate  to  believe  in  tliat  greater 
amount  of  variation  which  is  necessary  for  the  production  of 
the  eleven  chief  races  ? It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in 
two  of  the  most  strongly-marked  races,  namely.  Carriers  and 
Short-faced . Tumblers,  the  extreme  forms  can  be  connected 
with  the  parent-species  by  graduated  differences  not  greater 
than  those  which  may  be  observed  between  the  dovecot- 
pigeons  inhabiting  different  countries,  or  between  the  various 
kinds  of  toy-pigeons, — gradations  which  must  certainly  be 
attributed  to  variation. 

That  circumstances  have  been  eminently  favourable  for 
the  modification  of  the  pigeon  through  variation  and  selec- 
tion will  now  be  shown.  The  earliest  record,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  to  me  by  Professor  Lepsius,  of  pigeons  in  a 
domesticated  condition,  occurs  in  the  fifth  Egj^ptian  dynasty, 
about  3000  b.c.  but  Mr.  Birch,  of  the  British  Museum, 
informs  me  that  the  pigeon  appears  in  a bill  of  fai'e  in  the 
previous  dynasty.  Domestic  pigeons  are  mentioned  in 
Genesis,  Leviticus,  and  Isaiah. In  the  time  of  the  Eomans, 


It  deserves  notice,  as  bearing  on 
the  general  subject  of  variation,  that 
not  only  G.  livia  presents  several  wild 
forms,  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as 
species  and  by  others  as  sub-species  or 
as  mere  varieties,  but  that  the  species 
of  several  allied  genera  are  in  the  same 


predicamvjnt.  This  is  the  case,  as  ]\Ir. 
Blyth  has  remarked  to  me,  with 
Treron,  Palumbus,  and  Turtur. 

31  ‘ Denkmaler,’  Abth.  ii.  Bl.  70. 

33  The  ‘ Dovecote,’  by  the  Rev.  E.  S. 
Dixon,  1851,  pp.  11-13.  Adolphe 
Pictet  (in  his  ‘ Les  Origincs  Indo' 


Chap.  VL 


rOKMATION  OF  RACES. 


215 


as  we  hear  from  Pliny, immense  prices  were  given  for 
pigeons ; “ na,y,  they  are  come  to  this  pass,  that  they  can 
reckon  np  their  pedigree  and  race.”  In  India,  about  the 
year  1600,  pigeons  were  much  valued  by  Akber  Khan : 
20,000  birds  were  carried  about  with  the  court,  and  the 
merchants  brought  valuable  collections.  “ The  monarch  of 
Iran  and  Turan  sent  him  some  very  rare  breeds.  His 
Majesty,”  says  the  courtly  historian,  “ by  crossing  the  breeds, 
which  method  was  never  practised  before,  has  improved  them 
astonishingly.”  Akber  Khan  possessed  seventeen  distinct 
kinds,  eight  of  which  were  valuable  for  beauty  alone.  At 
about  this  same  period  of  1600  the  Dutch,  according  to 
Aldrovandi,  were  as  eager  about  pigeons  as  the  Eomans  had 
formerly  been.  The  breeds  which  were  kept  during  the 
fifteenth  century  in  Europe  and  in  India  apparently  differed 
from  each  other.  Tavernier,  in  his  Travels  in  1677,  speaks, 
as  does  Chardin  in  1735,  of  the  vast  number  of  pigeon- 
houses  in  Persia  ; and  the  former  remarks  that,  as  Christians 
were  not  permitted  to  keep  pigeons,  some  of  the  vulgar 
actually  turned  Mahometans  for  this  sole  purpose,  d'he 
Emperor  of  Morocco  had  his  favourite  keeper  of  pigeons,  as 
is  mentioned  in  Moore’s  treatise,  published  1737.  In  England, 
from  the  time  of  W illughby  in  1678  to  the  present  day,  as 
well  as  in  Germany  and  in  France,  numerous  treatises  have 
been  published  on  the  pigeon.  In  India,  about  a hundred 
years  ago,  a Persian  treatise  was  written ; and  the  writer 
thought  it  no  light  affair,  for  he  begins  with  a solemn  in- 
vocation, “ in  the  name  of  God,  the  gracious  and  merciful.” 
Many  large  towns,  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  now 
have  their  societies  of  devoted  pigeon-  fanciers ; at  present 
there  are  three  such  societies  in  London.  In  India,  as  I hear 
from  Mr.  Blyth,  the  inhabitants  of  Delhi  and  of  some  other 
great  cities  are  eager  fanciers.  Mr.  Layard  informs  me 


Eui-opeennes,’  1859,  p.  .399)  states 
that  there  are  in  the  ancient  Sanscrit 
language  between  25  and  30  names 
for  the  pigeon,  and  other  15  or  l6 
Persian  names  ; none  of  these  are  com- 
mon to  the  European  languages.  This 
fact  indicates  the  antiquity  of  the 


domestication  of  the  pigeon  in  the 
East. 

English  translation,  1601,  Book 
X.  ch.  xxxvii. 

‘Ayeen  Akbery,’  translated  I j 
F.  Gladwin,  4to  edit.,  vol.  i.  p.  270. 


216 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  : 


CiiAi>.  VL 


that  most  of  the  known  breeds  are  kept  in  Ceylon.  In 
China,  according  to  Mr.  Swinhoe  of  Amoy,  and  Dr.  Lockhart 
of  Shangai,  Carriers,  Fantails,  Tumblers,  and  other  varietifea 
are  reared  with  care,  especially  by  the  bonzes  or  priests. 
The  Chinese  fasten  a kind  of  whistle  to  the  tail-feathers  of 
their  pigeons,  and  as  the  flock  wheels  through  the  air  they 
produce  a sweet  sound.  In  Egypt  the  late  Abbas  Pacha  was 
a great  fancier  of  Eantails.  Many  pigeons  are  kept  at  Cairo 
and  Constantinople,  and  these  have  lately  been  imported  by 
native  merchants,  as  I hear  from  Sir  W.  Elliot,  into  Southern 
India,  and  sold  at  high  prices. 

The  foregoing  statements  show  in  how  many  countries, 
and  during  how  long  a period,  many  men  have  been  passion- 
ately devoted  to  the  breeding  of  pigeons.  Hear  how  an 
enthusiastic  fancier  at  the  present  day  writes  : “If  it  were 
possible  for  noblemen  and  gentlemen  to  know  the  amazing 
amount  of  solace  and  pleasure  derived  from  Almond  Tumblers, 
when  they  begin  to  understand  their  properties,  I should 
think  that  scarce  any  nobleman  or  gentleman  would  be 
without  their  aviaries  of  Almond  Tumblers.”  The  pleasure 
thus  taken  is  of  paramount  importance,  as  it  leads  amateurs 
carefully  to  note  and  preserve  each  slight  deviation  of 
structure  which  strikes  their  fancy.  Pigeons  are  often 
closely  confined  during  their  whole  lives ; they  do  not 
partake  of  their  naturally  varied  diet ; they  have  often  been 
transported  from  one  climate  to  another;  and  all  these 
changes  in  their  conditions  of  life  would  be  likely  to  cause 
variability.  Pigeons  have  been  domesticated  for  nearly 
5000  years,  and  have  been  kept  in  many  places,  so  that  the 
numbers  reared  under  domestication  must  have  been  enor- 
mous : and  this  is  another  circumstance  of  high  importance, 
for  it  obviously  favours  the  chance  of  rare  modifications  of 
structure  occasionally  appearing.  Slight  variations  of  all 
kinds  would  almost  certainly  be  observed,  and,  if  valued, 
would,  owing  to  the  following  circumstances,  be  preserved 
and  propagated  with  unusual  facility.  Pigeons,  difierently 
from  any  other  domesticated  animal,  can  easily  be  mated  foi 


**  J M I^iton,  ‘Treatise  on  the  Almond  Tumbler,’  1851 ; Preface,  p.  vL 


Cpiap.  YI.  HISTOEY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES. 


217 


life,  and,  thougli  kept  with  other  pigeons,  rarely  prove  un- 
faithful to  each  other.  Even  w^hen  the  male  does  break  his 
marriage-vow,  he  does  not  permanently  desert  his  mate.  I 
have  bred  in  the  same  aviaries  many  pigeons  of  different 
kinds,  and  never  reared  a single  bird  of  an  impure  strain. 
Hence  a fancier  can  with  the  greatest  ease  select  and 
match  his  birds.  He  will  also  see  the  good  results  of  his 
care;  for  pigeons  breed  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  He 
may  freely  reject  inferior  birds,  as  they  serve  at  an  early 
age  as  excellent  food. 

History  of  the  piincipal  Maces  of  the  Pigeon.^^ 

Before  discussing  the  means  and  steps  by  which  the  chief  races 
have  been  formed,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  some  historical  details, 
for  more  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  pigeon,  little  though  this  is, 
than  of  any  other  domesticated  animal.  Some  of  the  cases  are  inter- 
esting as  proving  how  long  domestic  varieties  may  be  propagated 
with  exactly  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  characters;  and  other 
cases  are  still  more  interesting  as  showing  how  slowly  but  steadily 
races  have  been  greatly  modified  during  successive  generations.  In 
the  last  chapter  I stated  that  Trumpeters  and  Laughers,  both 
so  remarkable  for  their  voices,  seem  to  have  been  perfectly  charac- 
terised in  1735 ; and  Laughers  were  apparently  known  in  India 
before  the  year  16C0.  Spots  in  1676,  and  Nuns  in  the  time  of 
Aldrovandi,  before  1600,  were  coloured  exactly  as  they  now  are. 
Common  Tumblers  and  Ground  Tumblers  displayed  in  India,  before 
the  year  1600,  the  same  extraordinary  peculiarities  of  flight  as  at 
the  present  day,  for  they  are  well  described  in  the  ‘ Ayeen  Akbery.’ 
These  breeds  may  all  have  existed  for  a much  longer  period ; we 
know  only  that  they  were  perfectly  characterised  at  the  dates  above 
given.  The  average  length  of  life  of  the  domestic  pigeon  is  probably 
about  five  or  six  years ; if  so,  some  of  these  races  have  retained 
their  character  perfectly  for  at  least  forty  or  fifty  generations. 

Pouters. — These  birds,  as  far  as  a very  short  description  serves  for 
comparison,  appear  to  have  been  well  characterised  in  Aldrovandi’s 
time,^^  before  the  year  1600.  Length  of  body  and  length  of  leg  are 
at  the  present  time  the  two  chief  points  of  excellence.  In  1735 
Moore  said  (see  Mr.  J.  M.  Eatons  edition)  — and  Moore  was  a first- 
rate  fancier — that  he  once  saw  a bird  with  a body  20  inches  in 
length,  “ though  17  or  18  inches  is  reckoned  a very  good  length and 
he  has  seen  the  legs  very  nearly  7 inches  in  length,  yet  a leg6|  or  6| 
long  “ must  be  allowed  to  be  a very  good  one.”  Mr.  Bult,  the  most 


As  in  the  following  discussion  I completed  in  the  year  1858. 
often  speak  of  the  present  time,  I ‘ Ornithologie,’  1600,  voi.  ii.  p. 

should  state  that  this  chapter  was  360. 


218 


DOMESTIC  pigeons: 


Chai>.  VI. 


successful  breeder  of  Pouters  in  the  world,  informs  me  that  at 
present  (1858)  the  standard  length  of  the  body  is  not  less  than  18 
inches;  but  he  has  measured  one  bird  19  inches  in  length,  and  has 
heard  of  20  and  22  inches,  but  doubts  the  truth  of  these  latter 
statements.  The  standard  length  of  the  leg  is  now  7 inches,  but 
Mr.  Bult  has  recently  measured  two  of  his  own  birds  with  legs  Ts 
long.  So  that  in  the  123  years  which  have  elapsed  since  1735  there 
has  been  hardly  any  increase  in  the  standard  length  of  the  body ; 
17  or  18  inches  was  formerly  reckoned  a very  good  length,  and 
now  18  inches  is  the  minimum  standard ; but  the  length  of  leg 
seems  to  have  increased,  as  Moore  never  saw  one  quite  7 inches 
long  ; now  the  standard  is  7,  and  two  of  Mr  Buit’s  birds  measured 
7s  inches  in  length.  The  extremely  slight  improvement  in  Pouters, 
except  in  the  length  of  the  leg,  during  the  last  123  years,  may  bo 
partly  accounted  for  by  the  neglect  which  they  suffered,  as  I am 
informed  by  Mr.  Bult,  until  within  the  last  20  or  30  years.  About 
1765^^  there  was  a change  of  fashion,  stouter  and  more  feathered 
legs  being  preferred  to  thin  and  nearly  naked  legs. 

Fantaih, — The  first  notice  of  the  existence  of  this  breed  is  in 
India,  before  the  year  1600,  as  given  in  the  'Ayeen  Akbery;’^®  at  tliis 
date,  judging  from  Aldrovandi,  the  breed  was  unknown  in  Europe. 
In  1677  Willughby  speaks  of  a Fantail  with  26  tail-feathers ; in  1735 
Moore  saw  one  with  36  feathers  ; and  in  1821:  MM.  Boitard  and 
Corbie  assert  that  in  France  birds  can  easily  be  found  with  42  tail- 
feathers.  In  England,  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers  is  not  at 
present  so  much  regarded  as  their  upward  direction  and  expansion. 
The  general  carriage  of  the  bird  is  likewise  now  much  valued.  The 
old  descriptions  do  not  suffice  to  show  whether  in  these  latter 
respects  there  has  been  much  improvement : but  if  Fantails  with 
their  heads  and  tails  touching  had  formerly  existed,  as  at  the  present 
time,  the  fact  would  almost  certainly  have  been  noticed.  The 
Fantails  which  are  now  found  in  India  probably  show  the  state  of 
the  race,  as  far  as  carriage  is  concerned,  at  the  date  of  their  intro- 
duction into  Europe  ; and  some,  said  to  have  been  brought  from 
Calcutta,  which  I kept  alive,  were  in  a marked  manner  inferior  to 
our  exhibition  birds.  The  Java  Fantail  shows  the  same  difference 
in  carriage ; and  although  Mr.  Swinhoe  has  counted  18  and  24  tail- 
feathers  in  his  birds,  a first-rate  specimen  sent  to  me  had  only 
14  tail-feathers. 

Jacobins. — This  breed  existed  before  1600,  but  the  hood,  judging 
from  the  figure  given  by  Aldrovandi,  did  not  enclose  the  head 
nearly  so  perfectly  as  at  present : nor  was  the  head  then  white  ; 
nor  were  the  wings  and  tail  so  long,  but  this  last  character  might 
have  been  overlooked  by  the  rude  artist.  In  Moore’s  time,  in  1735,  the 
Jacobin  was  considered  the  smallest  kind  of  pigeon,  and  the  bill  is 

‘ A Treatise  on  Domestic  of  part  of  the  ‘ Ayeen  Akbery  ’ ir 
Pigeons,’  dedicate  1 to  Mr.  Mayor,  ‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist vol 
17(35.  Preface,  p.  xiv.  xix.  18-17,  p.  104. 

Mr.  Blyth  has  given  a translation 


Chap.  YI. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES. 


219 


said  to  be  very  short.  Hence  either  the  Jacobin,  or  the  other  kinds 
with  which  it  was  then  compared,  mnst  since  that  time  have  been 
considerably  modified;  for  Moore’s  description  (and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  he  was  a first-rate  judge)  is  clearly  not  applicable, 
as  far  as  size  of  body  and  length  of  beak  are  concerned,  to  our  present 
Jacobins.  In  1795,  juging  from  Bechstein,  the  breed  had  assumed 
its  present  character. 

Turbits. — It  has  generally  been  supposed  by  the  older  writers  on 
pigeons,  that  the  Turbit  is  the  Cortbeck  of  Aldrovandi ; but  if  this 
be  the  case,  it  is  an  extraordinary  fact  that  the  characteristic  frill 
should  not  have  been  noticed.  The  beak,  moreover,  of  the  Gortbeck 
is  described  as  closely  resembling  that  of  the  Jacobin,  which  shows 
a change  in  the  one  or  the  other  race.  The  Turbit,  with  its  charac- 
teristic frill,  andbearingits  present  name,  is  described  by  Willughby 
in  1677 ; and  the  bill  is  said  to  be  like  that  of  the  bullfinch, — a good 
comparison,  but  now  more  strictly  applicable  to  the  beak  of  the 
Barb.  The  sub-breed  called  the  Owl  was  v/ell  known  in  Moore’s 
time,  in  1735, 

Tumblers— CommoiL  Tumblers,  as  well  as  Ground  Tumblers,  perfect 
as  far  as  tumbling  is  concerned,  existed  in  India  before  the  year 
1600 ; and  at  this  period  diversified  modes  of  flight,  such  as  flying 
at  night,  the  ascent  to  a great  height,  and  manner  of  descent,  seem 
to  have  been  much  attended  to  in  India,  as  at  the  present  time. 
Belon  in  1555  saw  in  Paphlagonia  what  he  describes  as  “ a very 
new  thing,  viz.  pigeons  which  flew  so  high  in  the  air  that  they  were 
lost  to  view,  but  returned  to  their  pigeon-house  without  separating.” 
This  manner  of  flight  is  characteristic  of  our  present  Tumblers,  but 
it  is  clear  that  Belon  would  have  mentioned  the  act  of  tumbling  if 
the  pigeons  described  by  him  had  tumbled.  Tumblers  were  not 
known  in  Europe  in  1600,  as  they  are  not  mentioned  by  Aldrovandi, 
who  discusses  the  flight  of  pigeons.  They  are  briefly  alluded  to  by 
Willughby,  in  1687,  as  small  pigeons  “ which  show  like  footballs  in 
the  air.”  The  short -faced  race  did  not  exist  at  this  period,  as 
Willughby  could  not  have  overlooked  birds  so  remarkable  for  their 
small  size  and  short  beaks.  We  can  even  trace  some  of  the  steps 
by  which  this  race  has  been  produced.  Moore  in  1735  enumerates 
correctly  the  chief  points  of  excellence,  hut  does  not  give  any  de- 
scription of  the  several  sub-breeds ; and  from  this'  fact  Mr.  Eaton 
infers that  the  Short-faced  Tumbler  had  not  then  come  to  full 
perfection.  Moore  even  speaks  of  the  Jacobin  as  being  the  smallest 
pigeon.  Thirty  years  afterwards,  in  1765,  in  the  Treatise  dedicated 
to  Mayor,  short-faced  Almond  Tumblers  are  fully  described,  but  the 
author,  an  excellent  fancier,  expressly  states  in  his  Preface  (p.  xiv.) 
that,  from  great  care  and  expense  in  breeding  them,  they  have 
arrived  to  so  great  perfection  and  are  so  different  from  what  they 
were  20  or  30  years  past,  that  an  old  fancier  would  have  condemned 


‘Treat'se  on  Pigeons,’  1852,  p. 
64. 


‘L’Histoire  de  la  Nature  des 
Oiseaux,’  p.  314. 


220 


DOMESTIC  riGEONS: 


Chap.  VI, 


them  for  no  other  reason  tlian  because  they  are  not  like  what  used 
to  be  thought  good  when  he  was  in  the  fancy  before.”  Hence  it 
would  appear  that  there  was  a rather  sudden  change  in  the  character 
of  the  short-faced  Tumbler  at  about  this  period  ; and  there  is  reason 
to  suspect  that  a dwarfed  and  half-monstrous  bird,  the  parent-form 
of  the  several  short-faced  sub-breeds,  then  appeared.  I suspect 
this  because  short-faced  Tumblers  are  born  with  their  beaks 
(ascertained  by  careful  measurement)  as  short,  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  their  bodies,  as  in  the  adult  bird ; and  in  this  respect 
they  differ  greatly  from  all  other  breeds,  which  slowly  acquire  during 
growth  their  various  characteristic  qualities. 

Since  the  year  1765  there  has  been  some  change  in  one  of  the 
chief  characters  of  the  short-faced  Tumbler,  namely,  in  the  length 
of  the  beak.  Fanciers  measure  the  head  and  beak”  from  the  tip 
of  the  beak  to  the  front  corner  of  the  eyeball.  About  the  year  1765 
a “ head  and  beak”  was  considered  good,^^  which,  measured  in  the 
usual  manner,  was  ^ of  an  inch  in  length  ; now  it  ought  not  to 
exceed  f of  an  inch ; “ it  is  however  possible,”  as  Mr.  Eaton  candidly 
confesses,  “ for  a bird  to  be  considered  as  pleasant  or  neat  even  at  f 
of  an  inch,  but  exceeding  that  length  it  must  be  looked  upon  as 
unworthy  of  attention.”  Mr.  Eaton  states  that  he  has  never  seen 
in  the  course  of  his  life  more  than  two  or  three  birds  with  the  ‘‘  head 
and  beak”  not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  length ; still  I believe  in 
tlie  course  of  a few  years  that  the  head  and  beak  will  be  shortened, 
and  that  half-inch  birds  will  not  be  considered  so  great  a curiosity 
as  at  the  present  time.”  That  Mr.  Eaton’s  opinion  deserves  attention 
cannot  be  doubted,  considering  his  success  in  winning  prizes  at  our 
exhibitions.  Finally  in  regard  to  the  Tumbler  it  may  be  concluded 
from  the  facts  above  given  that  it  was  originally  introduced  into 
Europe,  probably  first  into  England,  from  the  East ; and  that  it 
then  resembled  our  common  English  Tumbler,  or  more  probably 
the  Persian  or  Indian  Tumbler,  with  a beak  only  just  perceptibly 
shorter  than  that  of  the  common  dovecot-pigeon.  With  respect  to 
the  short-faced  Tumbler,  which  is  not  known  to  exist  in  the  East, 
there  can  hardly  be  a doubt  that  the  whole  wonderful  change  in  the 
size-  of  the  head,  beak,  body  and  feet,  and  in  general  carriage,  has 
been  produced  during  the  last  two  centuries  by  continued  selection, 
aided  probably  by  the  birth  of  a semi-monstrous  bird  somewhere 
about  the  year  1750. 

limits. — Of  their  history  little  can  be  said.  In  the  time  of  Pliny 
the  pigeons  of  Campania  were  the  largest  known ; and  from  this 
fact  alone  some  authors  assert  that  they  were  Runts.  In  Aldrovandi’s 
time,  in  1600,  two  sub-breeds  existed ; but  one  of  them,  the  short- 
beaked,  is  now  extinct  in  Europe. 

Barbs. — Notwithstanding  statements  to  the  contrary,  it  seems  to 
me  impossible  to  recognise  the  Barb  in  Aldrovandi’s  description  and 


J.  M.  Eaton’s  ‘Treatise  on  the  Tumbler,’ 1851.  Compart  p.  v ofPr©- 
Breeding  and  Managing  of  the  Almond  face,  p.  9,  and  p.  82. 


CiiAt*.  VI.  HISTOKY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES. 


221 


figures;  four  breeds,  however,  existed  in  the  year  1600  which 
evidently  were  allied  both  to  Barbs  and  Carriers.  To  show  how 
difficult  it  is  to  recognise  some  of  the  breeds  described  by  Aldrovandi 
I will  give  the  different  opinions  in  regard  to  the  above  four  kinds, 
named  by  him  C.  indica,  cretnisis,gutturosa,  and  persica,  Willughby, 
thought  that  the  Colamha  indica  was  a Turbit,  but  the  eminent 
fancier  Mr.  Brent  believes  that  it  was  an  inferior  Barb  : G.  cretensi^, 
with  a short  beak  and  a swelling  on  the  upper  mandible,  cannot  ba 
recognised : C.  (falsely  called)  gutturosa,  which  from  its  rostrum, 
breve,  crassum,  et  tuberosum  seems  to  me  to  come  nearest  to  the  Barb, 
Mr.  Brent  believes  to  be  a Carrier  ; and  lastly,  the  C.  persica  et 
turcica,  Mr.  Brent  thinks,  and  I quite  concur  with  him,  was  a short- 
beaked  Carrier  with  very  little  wattle.  In  1687  the  Barb  was  known 
in  England,  and  Willughby  describes  the  beak  as  like  that  of  the 
Turbit;  but  it  is  not  credible  that  his  Barbs  should  have  had  a beak 
like  that  of  our  present  birds,  for  so  accurate  an  observer  could  not 
have  overlooked  its  great  breadth. 

English  Carrier. — We  may  look  in  vain  in  Aldrovandi’s  work  for 
any  bird  resembling  our  prize  Carriers ; the  C.  persica  et  turcica  of 
this  author  comes  the  nearest,  but  is  said  to  have  had  a short  thick 
beak ; therefore  it  must  have  approached  in  character  a Barb,  and 
have  differed  greatly  from  our  Carriers.  In  Willughby’s  time,  in 
1677,  we  can  clearly  recognise  the  Carrier,  yet  he  adds,  the  bill  is 
not  short,  but  of  a moderate  length a description  which  no  one 
would  apply  to  our  present  Carriers,  so  conspicuous  for  the  extra- 
ordinary length  of  their  beaks.  The  old  names  given  in  Europe  to 
the  Carrier,  and  the  several  names  now  in  use  in  India,  indicate 
that  Carriers  originally  came  from  Persia;  and  Willughby’s  de- 
scription would  perfectly  apply  to  the  Bussorah  Carrier  as  it  now 
exists  in  Madras.  In  later  times  we  can  partially  trace  the  progress 
of  change  in  our  English  Carriers  : Moore,  in  1735,  says  an  inch  and 
a half  is  reckoned  a long  beak,  though  there  are  very  good  Carriers 
that  are  found  not  to  exceed  an  inch  and  a quarter.”  These  birds 
must  have  resembled  or  perhaps  been  a little  superior  to  the  Carriers, 
previously  described,  now  found  in  Persia.  In  England  at  the 
present  day  ‘‘  there  are,”  as  Mr.  Eaton  states, ''  beaks  that  would 
measure  (from  edge  of  eye  to  tip  of  beak)  one  inch  and  three-quarters, 
and  some  few  even  two  inches  in  length.” 

From  these  historical  details  we  see  that  nearly  all  the 
chief  domestic  races  existed  before  the  year  1600.  Some 
remarkable  only  for  colour  appear  to  have  been  identical  with 
our  present  breeds,  some  w^ere  nearly  the  same,  some  con- 
siderably different,  and  some  have  since  become  extinct. 
Several  breeds,  such  as  Finnikins  and  Turners,  the  swallow- 
tailed pigeon  of  Bechstein  and  the  Carmelite,  seem  to  have 


‘ Treatise  on  Pigeons,’  1852,  p.  41. 


222 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  ; 


Chat*.  VL 


originated  and  to  have  disappeared  within  this  same  period. 
Any  one  now  visiting  a well-stocked  English  aviary  would 
certainly  pick  out  as  the  most  distinct  kinds,  the  massive  Eunt, 
tlie  Carrier  with  its  wonderfully  elongated  beak  and  great 
wattles,  the  Barb  with  its  short  broad  beak  and  eye-wattles, 
the  short-faced  Tumbler  with  its  small  conical  beak,  the 
Pouter  with  its  great  crop,  long  legs  and  body,  the  Fantail 
with  its  upraised,  widely-expanded,  well- feathered  tail,  the 
d'urbit  with  its  frill  and  short  blunt  beak,  and  the  Jacobin 
with  his  hood.  Now,  if  this  same  person  could  have  viewed 
the  pigeons  kept  before  1600  by  Akber  Khan  in  India  and 
by  Aldrovandi  in  Europe,  he  would  have  seen  the  Jacobin 
with  a less  perfect  hood  ; the  Turbit  apparently  without  its 
frill ; the  Pouter  with  shorter  legs,  and  in  every  way  less 
remarkable — that  is,  if  Aldrovandi’s  Pouter  resembled  the  old 
German  kind  ; the  Fantail  would  have  been  far  less  singular 
in  appearance,  and  would  have  had  much  fewer  feathers  in  its 
tail ; he  would  have  seen  excellent  hying  Tumblers,  but  he 
would  in  vain  have  looked  for  the  marvellous  short-faced 
breeds ; he  would  have  seen  birds  allied  to  Barbs,  but  it  is 
extremely  doubtful  whether  he  would  have  met  with  our 
actual  Barbs ; and  lastly,  he  would  have  found  Carriers  with 
beaks  and  wattle  incomparably  less  developed  than  in  our 
English  Carriers.  He  might  have  classed  most  of  the  breeds 
in  the  same  groups  as  at  present ; but  the  differences  between 
the  groups  were  then  far  less  strongly  pronounced  than  at 
present.  In  short,  the  several  breeds  had  at  this  early  period 
not  diverged  in  so  great  a degree  as  now  from  their  aboriginal 
common  parent,  the  wild  rock -pigeon. 

Manner  of  Formation  of  the  chief  Maces. 

We  will  now  consider  more  closely  the  probable  steps  by 
which  the  chief  races  have  been  formed.  As  long  as  pigeons 
are  kept  semi-domesticated  in  dovecots  in  their  native  country, 
without  any  3are  in  selecting  and  matching  them,  they  are 
liable  to  little  more  variation  than  the  wild  C.  livia,  namely, 
in  the  wings  becoming  chequered  with  black,  in  the  croup 
being  blue  or  white,  and  in  the  size  of  the  body.  When, 
however,  dovecot -pigeons  are  transported  into  diversified 


Ch\p  VI. 


MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES. 


223 


countries,  such  as  Sierra  Leone,  the  Halay  archipelago,  and 
Madeira,  they  are  exposed  to  new  conditions  of  life ; and 
apparently  in  consequence  vary  in  a somewhat  greater  degree. 
When  closely  confined,  either  for  the  pleasure  of  watching 
them,  or  to  prevent  their  straying,  they  must  he  exposed, 
even  in  their  native  climate,  to  considerably  different  con- 
ditions; for  they  cannot  obtain  their  natural  diversity  of 
food;  and,  what  is  probably  more  important,  they  are 
abundantly  fed,  whilst  debarred  from  taking'lnuch  exercise. 
Under  those  circumstances  we  might  expect  to  find,  from  the 
analogy  of  all  other  domesticated  animals,  a greater  amount 
of  individual  variability  than  with  the  wild  pigeon  ; and  this 
is  the  case.  The  want  of  exercise  apparently  tends  to  reduce 
the  size  of  the  feet  and  organs  of  flight ; and  then,  from  the 
law  of  correlation  of  growth,  the  beak  apparently  becomes 
affected.  From  what  we  now  see  occasionally  taking  place  in 
our  aviaries,  we  may  conclude  that  sudden  variations  or 
sports,  such  as  the  appearance  of  a crest  of  feathers  on  the 
head,  of  feathered  feet,  of  a new  shade  of  colour,  of  an  addi- 
tional feather  in  the  tail  or  wing,  would  occur  at  rare  intervals 
during  the  many  centuries  which  have  elapsed  since  the  pigeon 
was  first  domesticated.  At  the  present  day  such  “ sports  ” 
are  generally  rejected  as  blemishes ; and  there  is  so  much 
mystery  in  the  breeding  of  pigeons  that,  if  a valuable  sport 
did  occur,  its  history  would  often  be  concealed.  Before  the 
last  hundred  and  fifty  years,  there  is  hardly  a chance  of  the 
history  of  any  such  sport  having  been  recorded.  But  it  by 
no  means  follows  from  this  that  such  sports  in  former  times, 
when  the  pigeon  had  undergone  much  less  variation,  would 
have  been  rejected.  We  are  profoundly  ignorant  of  the  cause 
of  each  sudden  and  apparently  spontaneous  variation,  as  well 
as  of  the  infinitely  numerous  shades  of  difference  between  the 
birds  of  the  same  family.  But  in  a future  chapter  we  shall 
see  that  all  such  variations  appear  to  be  the  indirect  result  of 
changes  of  some  kind  in  the  conditions  of  life. 

Hence,  after  a long  course  of  domestication,  we  might 
expect  to  see  in  the  pigeon  much  individual  variability,  and 
occasional  sudden  variations,  as  well  as  slight  modifications 
firom  the  lessened  use  of  certain  parts,  together  with  the 


224 


DOMESTIC  pigeons: 


Chap.  VI 


effects  of  correlation  of  growth.  But  without  selection  all 
this  would  produce  only  a trifling  or  no  result ; for  without 
such  aid  differences  of  all  kinds  would,  from  the  two  following 
causes,  soon  disappear.  In  a healthy  and  vigorous  lot  of 
pigeons  many  more  young  birds  are  killed  for  food  or  die  than 
are  reared  to  maturity ; so  that  an  individual  having  any 
peculiar  character,  if  not  selected,  would  run  a good  chance  of 
being  destroyed ; and  if  not  destroyed,  the  peculiarity  in 
question  would  generally  be  obliterated  by  free  intercrossing. 
It  might,  however,  occasionally  happen  that  the  same  varia- 
tion repeatedly  occurred,  owing  to  the  action  of  peculiar  and 
uniform  conditions  of  life,  and  in  this  case  it  would  prevail 
independently  of  selection.  But  when  selection  is  brought 
into  play  all  is  changed ; for  this  is  the  foundation-stone  in 
the  formation  of  new  races ; and  with  the  pigeon,  circum- 
stances, as  we  have  already  seen,  are  eminently  favourable  for 
selection.  When  a bird  presenting  some  conspicuous  vari- 
ation has  been  preserved,  and  its  offspring  have  been  selected, 
carefully  matched,  and  again  propagated,  and  so  onwards 
during  successive  generations,  the  principle  is  so  obvious  that 
nothing  more  need  be  said  about  it.  This  may  be  called 
methodical  selection,  for  the  breeder  has  a distinct  object  in 
view,  namely,  to  preserve  some  character  which  has  actually 
appeared ; or  to  create  some  improvement  already  pictured  in 
his  mind. 

Another  form  of  selection  has  hardly  been  noticed  by  those 
authors  who  have  discussed  this  subject,  but  is  even  more  im- 
portant. This  form  may  be  called  unconscious  selection,  for 
the  breeder  selects  his  birds  unconsciously,  unintentionally, 
and  without  method,  yet  he  surely  though  slowly  produces  a 
great  result.  I refer  to  the  effects  which  follow  from  each 
fancier  at  first  procuring'  and  afterwards  rearing  as  good  birds 
as  he  can,  according  to  his  skill,  and  according  to  the  standard 
of  excellence  at  each  successive  period.  He  does  not  wish 
permanently  to  modify  the  breed  ; he  does  not  look  to  the 
distant  future,  or  speculate  on  the  final  result  of  the  slow 
accumulation  during  many  generations  of  successive  slight 
chauges  ; he  is  content  if  he  possesses  a good  stock,  and  more 
than  content  if  he  can  beat  his  rivals.  The  fancier  in  the 


Cha>.  VI. 


MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES. 


225 


lime  of  Aldrovaiidi,  when  in  the  year  IGOO  he  admired  his 
own  Jacobins,  Pouters,  or  Carriers,  never  reflected  what  their 
descendants  in  the  year  1860  would  become  : he  would  haN  e 
been  astonished  could  he  have  seen  our  Jacobins,  our  improved 
English  Carriers,  and  our  Pouters ; he  would  probabl}^  have 
denied  that  they  were  the  descendants  of  his  own  once- 
admired  stock,  and  he  would  perhaps  not  have  valued 
them,  for  no  other  reason,-  as  was  written  in  1765,  “than 
because  they  were  not  like  what  used  to  be_  thoughC^ood 
when  ho  was  in  the  fancy.”  No  one  will  attribute  the 
lengthened  beak  of  the  Carrier,  the  shortened  beak  of  the 
Short-faced  Tumbler,  the  lengthened  leg  of  the  Pouter,  the 
more  perfectly  enclosed  hood  of  the  Jacobin,  (^c.,— changes 
effected  since  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  or  even  since  a much 
later  period, — to  the  direct  and  immediate  action  of  the  con- 
ditions of  life.  Eor  these  several  races  have  been  modified  in 
various  and  even  in  directly  opposite  ways,  though  kept 
under  the  same  climate  and  treated  in  all  respects  in  as  nearly 
uniform  a manner  as  possible.  Each  slight  change  in  the 
length  or  shortness  of  the  beak,  in  the  length  of  leg,  &(?.,  has 
no  doubt  been  indirectly  and  remotely  caused  by  some  change 
in  the  conditions  to  which  the  bird  has  been  subjected,  but 
we  must  attribute  the  final  result,  as  is  manifest  in  those 
cases  of  which  we  have  any  historical  record,  to  the  con- 
tinued selection  and  accumulation  of  many  slight  successive 
variations. 

The  action  of  unconscious  selection,  as  far  as  pigeons  are 
concerned,  depends  on  a universal  principle  in  human  nature, 
namely,  on  our  rivalry,  and  desire  to  outdo  our  neighbours. 
We  see  this  in  every  fleeting  fashion,  even  in  our  dress,  and 
it  leads  the  fancier  to  endeavour  to  exaggerate'  every  pecu- 
liarity in  his  breeds.  A great  authority  on  pigeons,^^  says, 
“ Fanciers  do  not  and  will  not  admire  a medium  standard, 
that  is,  half  and  half,  which  is  neither  here  nor  there,  but 
admire  extremes.”  After  remarking  that  the  fancier  of  Short- 
faced  Beard  Tumblers  wishes  for  a very  short  beak,  and  that 
tiie  fancier  of  Long-faced  Beard  Tumblers  wishes  for  a very 

*'*  Eaton’s  ‘Treatise  on  Pigeons,’  1858,  p.  86. 


16 


DOMESTIC  no  EONS. 


Chap.  Vi 


22(5 


long  beak,  lie  sa3  S,  with  respect  to  one  of  intermediate  length, 
“ Don’t  deceive  yonrselr.  Do  you  suppose  for  a moment  the 
short  or  the  long-faced  fancier  would  accept  such  a bird  as  a 
gift 7 Certainl}^  not;  the  short-faced  fancier  could  see  no 
lx;apity  in  it ; the  long-faced  fancier  would  swear  there  was 
no  use  in  it,  itc.”  In  these  comical  passages,  written  seriously, 
we  see  the  principle  which  has  ever  guided  fanciers,  and  has 
led  to  such  great  modifications  in  all  the  domestic  races  which 
are  valued  solely  for  tlieir  beauty  or  curiosity. 

Fashions  in  pigeon-breeding  endure  for  long  periods ; we 
cannot  change  the  structure  of  a bird  as  quickly  as  we  can  the 
fashion  of  our  dress.  In  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  no  doubt 
the  more  the  pouter  inflated  his  crop,  the  more  he  was  valued. 
Nevertheless,  fashions  do  to  a certain  extent  change  ; first  one 
point  of  strnctpire  and  then  another  is  attended  to;  or  different 
breeds  are  admired  at  different  times  and  in  different  coun- 
tries. As  the  author  just  quoted  remarks,  “ the  fancy  ebbs 
and  flows  ; a thorough  fancier  now-a-days  never  stoops  to 
breed  toy-birds ; ” yet  these  very  “ffoys  ” are  now  most  care- 
fully bred  in  Germany.  Breeds  which  at  the  present  time 
are  highly  valued  in  India  are  considered  worthless  in  England. 
No  doubt,  when  breeds  are  neglected,  they  degenerate ; still 
we  may  believe  that,  as  long  as  they  are  kept  under  the  same 
conditions  of  life,  characters  once  gained  will  be  partially 
retained  for  a long  time,  and  may  form  the  starting-point  for 
a future  course  of  selection. 

Let  it  not  be  objected  to  this  view  of  the  action  of  uncon- 
scious selection  that  fanciers  would  not  observe  or  care  for 
extremely"  slight  differences.  Those  alone  who  have  associated 
with  fanciers,  can  be  thoroughly  aware  of  their  accurate 
powers  of  discrimination  acquired  by  long  practice,  and  of  the 
care  and  labour  which  they  bestow  on  their  birds.  I have 
known  a fancier  deliberately  study  his  birds  day  after  day  to 
settle  which  to  match  together  and  which  to  reject.  Observe 
how  difficult  the  subject  appears  to  one  of  the  most  eminent 
and  experienced  fanciers.  Mr.  Eaton,  the  winner  of  many 
prizes,  says,  “ I would  here  particularly  guard  you  against 
keeping  too  great  a variety  of  pigeons,  <?therwise  you  will 
know  a little  about  all  the  kinds,  but  nothing  about  one  as  it 


Chap.  VI. 


MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES. 


227 


ought  to  be  known.” . “ It  is  possible  there  may  be  a few 
fanciers  that  have  a good  general  knowledge  of  the  several 
fancy  pigeons,  but  there  are  many  who  labour  under  the 
delusion  of  supposing  they  know  what  they  do  not.”  Speaking 
exclusively  of  one  sub-variety  of  one  race,  namely,  the  short- 
faced almond  tumbler,  and  after  saying  that  some  fanciers 
sacrifice  every  property  to  obtain  a good  head  and  beak,  and 
that  other  fanciers  sacrifice  everything  for  plumage,  he 
remarks  : “ Some  young  fanciers  who  are  over  covetous  go  in 
for  all  the  five  properties  at  once,  and  they  have  their  reward 
by  getting  nothing.”  In  India,  as  I hear  from  Mr.  Blyth, 
pigeons  are  likewise  selected  and  matched  with  the  greatest 
care.  We  must  not  judge  of  the  slight  divergences  from 
existing  varieties  which  would  have  been  valued  in  ancient 
days,  by  those  which  are  now  valued  after  the  formation  of  so 
many  races,  each  with  its  own  standard  of  perfection,  kept 
uniform  by  our  numerous  Exhibitions.  The  ambition  of  the 
most  energetic  fancier  may  be  fully  satisfied  by  the  difficulty 
of  excelling  other  fanciers  in  the  breeds  already  established, 
without  trying  to  form  a new  one. 

A difficulty  with  respect  to  the  power  of  selection  will 
perhaps  already  have  occurred  to  the  reader,  namely,  what 
could  have  led  fanciers  first  to  attempt  to  make  such  singular 
breeds  as  Pouters,  Eantails,  Carriers,  &c.  ? But  it  is  this  very 
difficulty  which  the  principle  of  unconscious  selection  re- 
moves. Undoubtedly  no  fancier  ever  did  intentionally  make 
such  an  attempt.  All  that  we  need  suppose  is  that  a 
variation  occurred  sufficiently  marked  to  catch  the  dis- 
criminating eye  of  some  ancient  fancier,  and  then  unconscious 
selection  carried  on  for  many  generations,  that  is,  the  wish 
of  succeeding  fanciers  to  excel  their  rivals,  would  do  the 
rest.  In  the  case  of  the  Fantail  we  may  suppose  that  the 
first  progenitor  of  the  breed  had  a tail  only  slightly  erected, 
as  may  now  be  seen  in  certain  Runts,^^  with  some  increase  in 
the  number  of  the  tail-feathers,  as  now  occasionally  occurs 
with  Nuns.  In  the  case  of  the  Pouter  we  may  suppose  that 

45  See  Neumeister’s  figure  of  the  Florence  Runt,  tab.  13,  in  ‘ Das  Ganze  der 
Taubenzueht.’ 


22S 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap.  VI. 


some  bird  inflated  its  crop  a little  more  than  other  pigeons, 
as  is  now  the  case  in  a slight  degree  with  the  oesophagus  of 
the  Turbit.  We  do  not  know  the  origin  of  the  common 
Tumbler,  but  we  may  suppose  that  a bird  was  born  with 
some  affection  of  the  brain,  leading  it  to  make  somersaults  in 
the  air;^**  and  before  the  year  1600  pigeons  remarkable  for 
their  diversified  manner  of  flight  were  much  valued  in  India, 
and  by  the  order  of  the  Emperor  Akber  Khan  were  sedulously 
trained  and  carefully  matched. 

Ill  the  foregoing  cases  we  have  supposed  that  a sudden 
variation,  conspicuous  enough  to  catch  a fancier’s  eye,  first 
appeared ; but  even  this  degree  of  abruptness  in  the  process 
of  variation  is  not  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a new  breed. 
When  the  same  kind  of  pigeon  has  been  kept  pure,  and  has 
been  bred  during  a long  period  by.  two  or  more  fanciers, 
slight  differences  in  the  strain  can  often  be  recognized. 
Thus  I have  seen  first-rate  Jacobins  in  one  man’s  possession 
which  certainly  differed  slightly  in  several  characters  from 
those  kept  by  another.  I possessed  some  excellent  Barbs 
descended  from  a pair  which  had  won  a prize,  and  another 
lot  descended  from  a stock  formerly  kept  by  that  famous 
fancier  Sir  John  Sebright,  and  these  plainly  differed  in  the 
form  of  the  beak ; but  the  differences  were  so  slight  that 
they  could  hardly  be  given  by  words.  Again,  the  com- 
mon English  and  Dutch  Tumbler  differ  in  a somewhat 
greater  degree,  both  in  length  of  beak  and  shape  of  head. 
What  first  caused  these  slight  differences  cannot  be  explained 
any  more  than  why  one  man  has  a long  nose  and  another  a 
short  one.  In  the  strains  long  kept  distinct  by  different 
fanciers,  such  differences  are  so  common  that  they  cannot  bo 
accounted  for  by  the  accident  of  the  birds  first  chosen  for 
breeding  having  been  originally  as  different  as  they  now  are. 
The  explanation  no  doubt  lies  in  selection  of  a slightly 
different  nature  having  been  applied  in  each  case;  for  no 

46  Mr.  W.  J.  Moore  gives  a full  nine,  to  an  ordinary  pigeon,  brings  on 
account  of  tlie  Ground  Tumblers  of  convulsive  movements  exactly  like 
India  (‘ Indian  Medical  Gazette,’ Jan.  those  of  a Tumbler.  One  pigeon, 
and  Feb.,  1873  j,  and  says  the  pricking  the  brain  of  which  had  been  pricked, 
the  base  of  the  brain,  and  giving  hy-  completely  recovered,  and  ever  after- 
drocyanic  acid,  together  with  strych-  wards  occasionally  made  somersaults. 


ClIAl*  VI, 


MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES. 


229 


two  fanciers  have  exactly  the  same  taste,  and  consequently 
110  two,  in  choosing  and  carefully  matching  their  birds, 
prefer  or  select  exactly  the  same.  As  each  man  naturally 
admires  his  own  birds,  he  goes  on  continually  exaggerating 
by  selection  whatever  slight  peculiarities  they  ina}’-  possess. 
This  will  more  especially  happen  with  fanciers  living  in 
different  countries,  who  do  not  compare  their  stocks  or  aim 
at  a common  standard  of  perfection.  Thus,  when  a mere 
strain  has  once  been  formed,  unconscious  selection  steadily 
tends  to  augment  the  amount  of  difference,  and  thus  converts 
the  strain  into  a snb-breed  and  this  ultimately  into  a wtdl- 
marked  breed  or  race. 

The  principle  of  correlation  of  growth  should  never  be  lost 
sight  of.  Most  pigeons  have  small  feet,  apparently  caused 
by  their  lessened  use,  and  from  correlation,  as  it  would 
appear,  their  beaks  have  likewise  bec.mie  reduced  in  length. 
The  beak  is  a conspicuous  organ,  and,  as  soon  as  it  had  thus 
become  perceptibly  shortened,  fanciers  would  almost  certainly 
strive  to  reduce  it  still  more  by  the  continued  selection  of 
birds  with  the  shortest  beaks ; whilst  at  the  same  time  other 
fanciers,  as  we  know  has  actually  been  the  case,  would  in 
other  sub-breeds,  strive  to  increase  its  length.  With  the 
increased  length  of  the  beak,  the  tongue  becomes  greatly 
lengthened,  as  do  the  eyelids  with  the  increased  development 
of  the  eye-wattles ; with  the  reduced  or  increased  size  of  the 
feet,  tlie  number  of  the  scutellae  vary;  with  the  length  of  the 
wing,  the  number  of  the  primary  wing-fetithers  differ;  and 
wdtli  the  increased  length  of  the  body  in  the  pouter  the 
number  of  the  sacral  vertebrae  is  augmented.  These  im- 
portant and  correlated  differences  of  structure  do  not  in- 
variably characterise  any  breed ; but  if  they  had  been 
attended  to  and  selected  with  as  much  care  as  the  more 
conspicuous  external  differences,  there  can  hardly  be  a doubt 
that  they  would  have  been  rendered  constant.  Fanciers 
could  assuredly  ha^e  made  a race  of  Tumblers  with  nine 
instead  of  ten  primary  wing-feathers,  seeing  how  often,  the 
number  nine  appears  without  any  wish  on  their  part,  and 
indeed  in  the  case  of  the  white- winged  varieties  in  opposition 
to  their  wish.  In  a similar  manner,  if  tlie  vertebrae  had 


230 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap;  VI 


been  visible  and  had  been  attended  to  by  fanciers,  assuredly 
au  additional  nuinber  might  easily  have  been  fixed  in  ihe 
Fonter.  If  these  latter  characters  had  once  been  rendered 
constant,  we  should  never  have  suspected  that  they  had  at 
first  been  highly  variable,  or  that  they  had  aiisen  from 
correlation,  in  the  one  case  witli  the  shortness  of  the  wings, 
and  in  the  other  case  with  the  length  of  the  body. 

In  order  to  understand  how  the  chief  domestic  races  have 
become  distinctly  separated  from  each  other,  it  is  important 
to  bear  in  mind,  that  fanciers  constantly  try  to  breed  from 
the  best  birds,  and  consequently  that  those  which  are  inferi(»r 
in  the  requisite  qualities  are  in  each  generation  neglected; 
so  that  after  a time  the  less  improved  parent-stocks  and 
many  subsequently  formed  intermediate  grades  become  ex- 
tinct. This  has  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  Pouter,  Turbit, 
and  Trumpeter,  for  these  highly  improved  breeds  are  now 
left  without  any  links  closely  connecting  them  either  wuth 
each  other  or  with  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon.  In  othei- 
countries,  indeed,  where  the  same  care  has  not  been  applied, 
or  where  the  same  fashion  has  not  prevailed,  the  earlier 
forms  may  long  remain  unaltered,  or  altered  only  in  a slight 
degree,  and  we  are  thus  sometimes  enabled  to  recover  tlie 
connecting  links.  This  is  the  case  in  Persia  and  India  with 
the  Tumbler  and  Carrier,  which  there  differ  but  slightly  from 
the  rock-pigeon  in  the  proportions  of  their  beaks.  iSo  again 
in  Java,  the  Fantail  sometimes  has  only  foniteen  caudal 
feathers,  and  the  tail  is  much  less  elevated  and  expanded 
than  in  our  improved  birds;  so  that  the  Java  bird  forms  a 
link  between  a first-rate  Fantail  and  the  rock-pigeon. 

Occasionally  a breed  may  be  retained  for  some  particular 
qualify  in  a nearly  unaltered  condition  in  the  same  country, 
together  with  highly  modified  off-slioots  or  sub-breeds,  which 
are  valued  for  some  distinct  property.  VV^e  see  this  ex- 
emplified in  England,  where  the  common  Tumbler,  which  is 
valued  only  for  its  flight,  does  not  differ  much  from  its 
parent- form,  the  Eastern  Tumbler ; whereas  the  Short-faced 
Tumbler  has  been  prodigiously  modified,  from  being  valued, 
not  for  its  flight,  but  for  other  qualities.  But  the  common- 
flying  Tumbler  of  Europe  has  alread}^  begun  to  branch  out 


CUAP.  VI. 


MANNEE  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES. 


231 


into  slightly  different  sub-breeds,  such  as  the  common 
English  Tumbler,  the  Dutch  Eoller,  the  , Glasgow  House- 
tumbler,  and  the  Long-faced  Beard  Tumbler,  &c. ; and  in  the 
course  of  centuries,  unless  fashions  greatly  change,  these  sub- 
oreeds  will  diveige  through  the  slow  and  insensible  process 
of  unconscious  selection,  and  become  modified,  in  a greater 
anil  greater  degree.  After  a time  the  perfectly  .graduated 
links  which  now  connect  all  these  sub-breeds  together,  will 
be  lost,  for  there  would  be  no  object  and  much  difficulty  in 
retaining  such  a host  of  intermediate  sub- varieties. 

The  piinciple  of  divergence,  together  with  the  extinction 
of  the  many  previously  existing  intermediate  forms,  is  so 
important  for  understanding  the  origin  of  domestic  races,  as 
well  as  of  species  in  a state  of  nature,  that  I will  enlarge  a 
little  more  on  this  subject.  Our  third  main  group  includes 
Carriers,  Barbs,  and  Hunts,  which  ai-e  plainly  related  to  one 
another,  yet  wonderfully  distinct  in  several  important  cha- 
racters. According  to  the  view  given  in  the  last  chapter, 
these  .three  races  have  probably  descended  from  an  unknown 
race  having  an  intermediate  character,  and  this  race  from  the 
rock-pigeon.  Their  characteristic  differences  are  believed  to 
be  due  to  different  breeders  having  at  an  early  period  admired 
different  points  of  structure ; and  then,  on  the  acknowledged 
principle  of  admiring  extremes,  having  gone  on  breeding, 
Muthout  any  thought  of  the  future,  as  good  birds  as  they 
could, — Carrier- fanciers  preferring  long  beaks  with  much 
wattle, — Barb-fanciers  preferring  short  thick  beaks  with 
much  eye-wattle, — and  Eunt-fanciers  not  caring  about  the 
beak  or  wattle,  but  only  for  the  size  and  weight  of  the  body. 
This  process  would  have  led  to  the  neglect  and  final  extinc- 
tion of  the  earlier,  inferior,  and  intermediate  birds  ; and  thus 
it  has  come  to  pass,  that  in  Europe  these  three  races  are  now 
extraordinarily  distinct  from  each  other.  But  in  the  East, 
whence  they  were  originally  brought,  the  fashion  has  been 
different,  and  we  there  see  breeds  which  connect  the  highly 
modified  English  Carrier  with  the  rock-pigeon,  and  others 
which  to  a certain  extent  connect  Carriers  and  Hunts.  Look- 
ing back  to  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  we  find  that  there 
existed  in  Europe,  before  the  year  1600,  four  breeds  Avhich 


232 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


ClIAI'.  VI 


were  closely  allied  to  Carriers  and  Barbs,  but  which  competent 
authorities  cannot  now  identify  with  our  present  Barbs  and 
Carriers ; nor  can  Aldrovandi’s  Eunts  be  identified  with  our 
present  Eunts.  These  four  breeds  certainly  did  not  differ 
from  each  other  nearly  so  much  as  do  our  existing  English 
Carriers,  Barbs,  and  Eunts.  All  this  is  exactly  what  might 
have  been  anticipated.  If  we  could  collect  all  the  pigeons 
which  have  ever  lived,  from  before  the  time  of  the  Eomans 
to  the  present  day,  we  should  be  able  to  group  them  in 
several  lines,  diverging  from  the  parent  rock-pigeon.  Each 
line  would  consist  of  almost  insensible  steps,  occasionally 
liroken  by  some  slightly  greater  variation  or  sport,  and  each 
would  culminate  in  one  of  our  present  highly  modified  forms. 
Of  the  many  former  connecting  links,  some  would  be  found 
t > have  become  absolutely  extinct  without  having  left  any 
issue,  whilst  others,  though  extinct,  would  be  recognized  as 
the  progenitors  of  the  existing  races. 

I have  heal'd  it  remarked  as  a strange  circumstance  that 
we  occasionally  hear  of  the  local  or  complete  extinction  of 
domestic  races,  whilst  we  hear  nothing  of  their  origin.  How, 
it  has  been  asked,  can  these  losses  be  compensated,  and  more 
than  compensated,  for  we  kimw  that  with  almost  all  domes- 
ticated animals  the  races  have  largely  increased  in  number 
since  the  time  of  the  Eomans?  But  on  the  view  here  given, 
we  can  understand  this  apparent  contradiction.  The  ex- 
tinction of  a race  within  historical  times  is  an  event  likely 
to  be  noticed ; but  its  gradual  and  scarcely  sensible  modifi- 
cation through  unconscious  selection,  and  its  subsequent 
divergence,  either  in  the  same  or  more  commonly  in  distant 
countries,  into  two  or  more  strains,  and  their  gradual  conver- 
sion into  sub-breeds,  and  these  into  well-marked  breeds  are 
events  which  would  rarely  be  noticed.  The  death  of  a tree, 
that  has  attained  gigantic  dimensions,  is  recorded ; the  slow 
growth  of  smaller  trees  and  their  increase  in  number  excite 
Jio  attention. 

In  accordance  with  the  belief  in  the  great  power  of  selection, 
and  of  the  little  direct  power  of  changed  conditions  of  life, 
except  in  causing  general  variability  or  plasticity  of  organisa- 
tion, it  is  not  surprising  that  dovecot- pigeons  have  remained 


Chap.  VI.  MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES.  23‘3 

UD altered  fi-om  time  immemorial ; and  that  some  toy-pigeons, 
which  (Utter  in  little  else  besides  colour  from  the  dovecot- 
pigeon,  have  retained  the  same  character  for  several  centuries. 
For  when  one  of  these  toy-pigeons  had  once  become  beautifully 
and  symmetrically  coloured, — when,  for  instance,  a Spot  had 
])een  produced  with  the  crown  of  its  head,  its  tail,  and  tail- 
coverts  of  a uniform  colour,  the  rest  of  the  body  being  snow-, 
white, — no  alteration  or  improvement  would  be  desired.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  not  surprising  that  during  this  same 
interval  of  time  our  highly-bred  pigeons  have  undergone  an 
astonishing  amount  of  change;  for  in  regard  to  them  there 
is  no  defined  limit  to  the  wish  of  the  fancier,  and  there  is  no 
known  limit  to  the  variability  of  their  characters.  What  is 
there  to  stoj)  the  fancier  desiring  to  give  to  his  Carrier  a 
longer  and  longer  beak,  or  to  his  Tumbler  a shinter  and 
sh'jrter  beak  ? nor  has  the  extreme  limit  of  variability  in  the 
beak,  if  there  be  any  such  limit,  as  yet  been  reached.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  improvement  eftected  within  recent 
times  in  the  Short-faced  Almond  Tumbler,  Mr.  Eaton  remarks, 
the  field  is  still  as  open  for  fresh  competitors  as  it  was  one 
hundred  years  ago ; ’ but  this  is  perhaps  an  exaggerated 
assertion,  for  the  young  of  all  highly-improved  fancy  birds 
are  extremely  liable  to  disease  and  death. 

I have  heard  it  objected  that  the  formation  of  the  several 
domestic  races  of  the  pigeon  throws  no  light  on  the  origin  of 
tlie  wild  species  of  the  Golumbidfe,  because  their  differences 
are  not  of  the  same  nature.  The  domestic  races,  for  instance 
do  not  differ,  or  differ  hardly  at  all,  in  the  relative  lengths 
and  shape  of  the  primary  wing-feathers,  in  the  relative 
length  of  the  hind  toe,  or  in  habits  of  life,  as  in  roosting  and 
building  in  trees.  But  the  above  objection  shows  how  com- 
pletely the  principle  of  selection  has  been  misun^derstood.  It 
is  not  likely  that  characters  selected  by  the  caprice  of  man 
should  resemble  differences  preserved  under  natural  conditions 
either  from  being  of  direct  service  to  each  species,  or  from 
standing  in  correlation  with  other  modified  and  serviceable 
structures.  Until  man  selects  birds  differing  in  the  relative 
length  of  the  wing-feathers  or  toes,  &g.,  no  sensible  change 
in  these  parts  should  be  expected.  Nor  could  man  do  anything 


234 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


ClIAl>.  VI 


unless  these  parts  happened  to  vary  under  domestication : 
1 do  not  pc'sitivel}"  assert  that  this  is  the  case,  although  I 
have  seen  traces  of  such  variability  in  the  wing- feathers,  and 
certainly  in  the  tail-feathers.  It  would  bo  a strange  fact  if 
the  relative  length  of  the  hind  toe  should  never  vary,  seeing 
how  variable  the  foot  is  both  in  size  and  in  the  number  of 
the  soutellaB.  With  respect  to  the  domestic  races  not  roosting 
or  building  in  trees,  it  is  obx  ious  that  fanciers  would  never 
attend  to  or  select  such  changes  in  habits ; but  we  have  seen 
that  the  pigeons  in  Egypt,  which  do  not  for  some  reason 
like  settling  on  the  low  mud  hovels  of  the  natives,  are  led, 
apparently  by  compulsion,  to  perch  in  crowds  on  the  trees. 
\n  e may  even  affirm  that,  if  our  doiue.'tic  races  had  become 
greatly  modified  in  any  of  the  above  specifi.ed  respects,  and  it 
could  be  shown  that  fanciets  had  never  attended  to  such 
points,  or  that  they  did  not  stand  in  correlation  with  other 
selected  characters,  the  fact,  on  the  principles  advocated  in 
this  chapter,  would  have  offered  a serious  difficulty. 

Let  us  briefly  sum  up  the  last  two  chapters  on  the  pigeon. 
We  may  conclude  with  confidence  that  all  the  domestic  races, 
notwithstanding  their  great  amount  of  difference,  are  de- 
scended from  the  Columba  livia,  including  under  this  name 
certain  wild  races.  But  the  differences  between  the  latter 
throw  no  light  whatever  on  the  characters  which  distinguish 
the  domestic  races.  In  each  breed  or  sub-breed  the  individual 
birds  are  more  variable  than  birds  in  a state  of  nature ; and 
occasionally  they  vary  in  a sudden  and  strongly-marked 
manner,  fldiis  plasticity  of  organization  aiDparently  results 
from  changed  conditions  of  life.  Disuse  has  reduced  certain 
parts  of  the  body.  Correlation  of  growth  so  ties  the  organisa- 
tion together,  that  when  one  part  varies  other  parts  vary  at 
the  same  time.  When  several  breeds  have  once  been  formed, 
their  intercrossing  aids  the  progress  of  modification,  and  has 
even  produced  new  sub-breeds.  But  as,  in  the  construction 
of  a building,  mere  stones  or  bricks  are  of  little  avail  without 
the  builder’s  art,  so,  in  the  production  of  new  races,  selection 
has  been  the  presiding  power.  Fanciers  can  act  by  selection 
on  excessively  slight  individual  differences,  as  well  as  on 
Ihose  greater  differences  which  are  called  sports.  Selection 


Chap.  \l. 


MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES. 


235 


is  followed  methodically  when  the  fancier  tries  to  improve 
and  modify  a breed  according  to  a prefixed  standard  of  excel- 
lence; or  he  acts  unmethodically  and  unconsciously,  by 
merely  tiying  to  rear  as  good  birds  as  he  can,  without  any 
wish  or  intention  to  alter  the  breed.  The  progress  ot 
selection  almost  inevitably  leads  to  the  neglect  and  ultimate 
extinction  of  the  earlier  and  less  improved  forms,  as  well  as 
of  many  intermediate  links  in  each  long  line  of  descent. 
Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  most  of  our  present  races  are 
so  marvellously  distinct  from  each  other,  and  from  the 
aboriginal  rock-pigeon. 


236 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FOWLS. 


BRIEF  DESCRIPTIONS  OP  THE  CHIEF  BREFDS — ARGUMENTS  IN  FAVOUR  OF 
THEIR  DESCENT  FROM  SEVERAL  SPECIES — ARGUMENTS  IN  FAVOUR  OP  ALL 
THE  BREEDS  HAVING  DESCENDED  FROM  GaLLUS  BANKIVA — REVERSION  TO 

THE  PARENT-STOCK  IN  COLOUR ANALOGOUS  VARIATIONS  — ANCIENT 

HISTORY  OF  THE  FOWL — EXTERNAL  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  SEVERAL 
BREEDS — EGGS — CHICKENS — SECONDARY  SEXUAL  CHARACTERS — WING-  AND 
TAIL-  FEATHERS,  VOICE,  DISPOSITION,  ETC. — OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES 
IN  THE  SKULL,  VERTEBR.®,  ETC. — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE  ON 
CERTAIN  PARTS — CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH. 


As  some  naturalists  may  not  be  familiar  with  the  chief  breeds 
of  the  fowl,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  a condensed  descrip- 
tion of  them.^  From  wdiat  I have  read  and  seen  of  specimens 
brought  from  several  quarters  of  the  world,  I believe  that 
most  of  the  chief  kinds  have  been  imported  into  England,  but 
many  sub-breeds  are  probably  still  unknown  here.  The 
following  discussion  on  the  origin  of  the  various  breeds  and 
on  their  characteristic  differences  does  not  pretend  to  com- 
pleteness, but  may  be  of  some  interest  to  the  naturalist.  The 
classification  of  the  breeds  cannot,  as  far  as  I can  see,  be  made 
natural.  They  differ  from  each  other  in  different  degrees,  and 
do  not  afford  characters  in  subordination  to  each  other,  by 
which  they  can  be  ranked  in  group  under  group.  They  seem 
all  to  have  diverged  by  independent  and  different  roads  from 
a single  tj^pe.  Each  chief  breed  includes  differently  coloured 
sub-varieties,  most  of  which  can  be  truly  propagated,  but  it 
wmuld  be  superfluous  to  describe  them.  I have  classed  the 
various  crested  fowls  as  sub-breeds  under  the  Polish  fowl ; 


* 1 have  drawn  up  this  brief  synop- 
sis from  various  sources,  but  chiefly 
from  information  given  me  by  Mr. 
Tegetmeier.  This  gentleman  has 
kindly  looked  through  this  chapter  ; 
and  from  his  well-known  knowledge, 
the  statements  here  given  may  be 
fully  trusted.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  has 


likewise  assisted  me  in  every  possible 
way  in  obtaining  for  me  information 
and  specimens.  I must  not  let  this 
opportunity  pass  without  expressing 
my  cordial  thanks  to  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent, 
a well-known  writer  on  poultry,  for 
continuous  assistance  and  the  gift  of 
many  specimens. 


Chap.  VIL 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


237 


bat  I have  great  doubts  whether  this  is  a natural  arrange- 
ment, showing  true  affinity  or  blood  relationship.  It  is 
scarcely  possible  to  avoid  laying  stress  on  tlie  commonness  of 
a breed;  and  if  certain  foreign  sub-breeds  had  been  largely 
kept  in  this  country  they  would  perhaps  have  been  raised  to 
the  rank  of  main-breeds.  Several  breeds  are  abnormal  in 
character;  that  is,  they  differ  in  certain  points  from  all  wild 
Gallinaceous  birds.  At  first  I made  a division  of  the  breeds 
into  normal  and  abnormal,  but  the  result  was  wholly  unsatis- 
factory. 

1.  Game  Breed. — This  may  be  considered  as  the  typical  breed,  as 
it  deviates  only  slightly  from  the  wild  Gallus  hankiva,  or,  as  perhaps 
more  correctly  named, /ermy»?e4(s.  Beak  strong;  comb  single  and 
upright.  Spurs  long  and  sharp.  Feathers  closely  appressed  to  the 
body.  Tail  with  the  normal  number  of  14  feathers.  Eggs  often 
pale  buff.  Disposition  indomitably  courageous,  exhibited  even  in 
the  hens  and  chickens.  An'  unusual  number  of  differently  coloured 
varieties  exist,  such  as  black  and  brown-breasted  reds,  duckwings, 
blacks,  whites,  piles,  &c.,  with  their  legs  of  various  colours. 

2.  Malay  Breed. — Body  of  great  size,  with  head,  neck,  and  legs 
elongated  ; carriage  erect;  tail  small,  sloping  downwards,  generally 
formed  of  16  feathers  ; comb  and  wattle  small ; ear-lobe  and  face 
red ; skin  yellowish ; feathers  closely  appressed  to  the  body  ; neck- 
hackles  short,  narrow,  and  hard.  Eggs  often  pale  buff.  Chickens 
feather  late.  Disposition  savage.  Of  Eastern  origin. 

3.  Cochin,  or  Shangai  Breed. — Size  great ; wing  feathers  short, 
arched,  much  hidden  in  the  soft  downy  plumage ; barely  capable  of 
flight ; tail  short,  generally  formed  of  16  feathers,  developed  at  a 
late  period  in  the  young  males  ; legs  thick,  feathered  ; spurs  short, 
thick;  nail  of  middle  toe  flat  and  broad;  an  additional  toe  not 
rarely  developed;  skin  yellowish.  Comb  and  wattle  well  developed. 
Skull  with  deep  medial  furrow ; occipital  foramen,  sub-triangular, 
vertically  elongated.  Voice  peculiar.  Eggs  rough,  buff-coloured. 
Disposition  extremely  quiet.  Of  Chinese  origin. 

4.  Dorking  Breed. — Size  great;  body  square,  compact;  feet 
with  an  additional  toe ; comb  well  developed,  but  varies  much  in 
form;  wattles  well  developed;  colour  of  plumage  various.  Skull 
remarkably  broad  between  the  orbits.  Of  English  origin. 

The  white  Dorking  may  be  considered  as  a distinct  sub-breed, 
being  a less  massive  bird. 

5.  Spanish  Breed  (fig  30). — Tall,  with  stately  carriage ; tarsi 
long ; comb  single,  deeply  serrated,  of  immense  size  ; wattles  largely 
developed ; the  large  ear-lobes  and  sides  of  face  white.  Plumage  black 
glossed  with  green.  Do  not  incubate.  Tender  in  constitution, 
the  comb  being  often  injured  by  frost.  Eggs  white,  smooth,  of 
large  size.  Chickens  feather  late  but  the  young  cocks  show  their 


238 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


masculine  characters,  and  crow  at  an  early  age.  Of  Mediterranean 
origin. 

The  Andalusians  may  be  ranked  as  a sub-breed : they  are  of  a 
slaty-blue  colour,  and  their  chickens  are  well  feathered.  A smaller, 
short-legged  Dutch  sub-breed  has  been  described  by  some  authors 
as  distinct. 


Fig.  30.— Spanish  Fowl. 


6.  Hamburgh  Breed  (fig.  31). — Size  moderate ; comb  flat,  pro- 
duced backwards,  covered  with  numerous  small  points;  wattle  of 
moderate  dimensions;  ear  lobe  white;  legs  blueish, thin.  Do  not 
incubate.  Skull,  with  the  tips  of  the  ascending  branches  of  the 
premaxillary  and  with  the  na'^al  bones  standing  a little  separate 
from  each  other ; anterior  margin  of  the  frontal  bones  less  depressed 
than  usual. 


OiiAP.  vn. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


239 


There  are  two  sub-breeds  ; the  spangUd  Hamburgh,  of  English 
origin,  with  the  tips  of  the  feathers  marked  with  a dark  spot ; and 
the"  pencilled  Hamburgh,  of  Dutch  origin,  with  dark  transverse  lines 
across  each  feather,  and  with  the  body  rather  smaller.  Both  these 
sub-breeds  include  gold  and  silver  varieties,  as  well  as  some  other 
sub-varieties.  Black  Hamburghs  have  been  produced  by  a cross 
with  the  Spanish  breed. 

7.  Crested  or  Polish  Breed  ffig.  32).— Head  with  a large, 
rounded  crest  of  feathers,  suppor'ed  on  a hemispherical  protuberance 


Fig.  31 — Hamburgh  Fowl. 


of  the  frontal  bones, which  includes  the  anterior  part  of  the  brain. 
The  ascending  branches  of  premaxillary  bones  and  the  inner  nasal 
processes  are  much  shortened.  • The  orifice  of  the  nostrils  raised 
and  crescentic.  Beak  short.  Comb  absent,  or  small  and  of  cre- 
scentic shape;  wattles  either  present  or  replaced  by  a beard-like 
tuft  of  feathers.  Legs  leaden-blue.  Sexual  differences  appear  late 
in  life.  Do  not  incubate.  There  are  several  beautiful  varieties 
which  differ  in  colour  and  slightly  in  other  respects. 


240 


FOWLS. 


CHAr.  VII. 


The  following  sub-breeds  agree  in  having  a crest,  more  or  less 
developed,  with  the  comb,  when  present,  of  crescentic  shape.  The 
skull  presents  nearly  the  same  remarkable  peculiarities  of  structure 
as  in  the  true  Polish  fowl. 

Sub-breed  (a)  Sultans. — A Turkish  breed,  resembling  white 
Polish  fowls  with  a large  crest  and  beard  with  short  and  well  - 


Fig.  32.— Polish  Fowl. 


feathered  legs.  The  tail  is  furnished  with  additional  sickle  feathers 
Do  not  incubate.^ 

Sub-breed  (b)  Ptarmigans. — An  inferior  breed  closely  allied  to 


2 The  best  account  of  Sultans  is  by  kindness  the  examination  of  some 

Miss  Watts  in  ‘The  Poultry  Yard,’  specimens  of  this  breed. 

1856,  p,  79.  I owe  to  Mr.  Brent’s 


Chap.  VII.  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  241 

the  last,  white,  rather  small,  legs  much  feathered,  with  the  crest 
pointed ; comb  small,  cupped ; wattles  small. 

Sub-breed  (c)  Glwondooks. — Another  Turkish  breed  having  an 
extraordinary  appearance ; black  and  tailless ; crest  and  beard  large ; 
legs  feathered.  The  inner  processes  of  the  two  nasal  bones  come 
into  contact  with  each  other,  owing  to  the  complete  abortion  of  the 
ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries.  I have  seen  an  allied 
white,  tailless  breed  from  Turkey. 

Sub-breed  (d)  Creve-coeur. — A French  breed  of  large  size,  barely 
capable  of  flight,  with  short  black  legs,  head  crested,  comb  produced 
into  two  points  or  horns,  sometimes  a little  branched  like  thediorns 
of  a stag ; both  beard  and  wattles  present.  Eggs  large.  Disposition 
quiet.^ 

Sub-breed  (e)  TIorntd  fowl. — With  a small  crest;  comb  produced 
into  two  great  points,  supported  on  two  bony  protuberances. 

Sub-breed  (/)  Ilowlan. — A French  breed ; of  moderate  size,  short- 
legged with  five  toes,  well  developed ; plumage  invariably  mottled 
with  black,  white,  and  straw-yellow ; head  furnislied  with  a crest,  on 
a triple  comb  placed  transversely ; both  wattles  and  beard  present.^ 

Sub-breed  (g)  Guelderlunds. — No  comb,  head  said  to  be  surmounted 
by  a longitudinal  crest  of  soft  velvety  feathers ; nostrils  said  to  be 
crescentic;  wattles  well  developed;  legs  feathered;  colour  black. 
From  North  America.  The  Breda  fowl  seems  to  be  closely  allied  to 
the  Guelder  land. 

8.  Bantam  Breed. — Originally  from  Japan,®  characterised  by 
small  size  alone  ; carriage  bold  and  erect.  There  are  several  sub- 
breeds, such  as  the  Cochin,  Game,  and  Sebright  Bantams,  some  of 
which  have  been  recently  formed  by  various  crosses.  The  Black 
Bantam  has  a differently  shaped  skull,  with  the  occipital  foramen 
like  that  of  the  Cochin  fowl. 

9.  Bumpless  Fowls. — These  are  so  variable  in  character®  that 
they  hardly  deserve  to  be  called  a breed.  Any  one  who  will  examine 
the  caudal  vertebrae  will  see  how  monstrous  the  breed  is. 

10.  Cr^ebpers  or  Jumpers. — These  are  characterized  by  an  almost 
monstrous  shortness  of  legs,  so  that  they  move  by  jumping  rather 
than  by  walking;  they  are  said  not  to  scratch  up  the  ground.  I 
have  examined  a Burmese  variety,  which  had  a skull  of  rather 
unusual  shape. 

11.  Frizzled  or  Caffre  Fowls. — Not  uncommon  in  India,  with 
the  feathers  curling  backwards,  and  with  the  primary  feathers  of 
the  wing  and  tail  imperfect;  periosteum  of  bones  black. 


^ A good  description,  with  figures, 
is  given  of  this  sub-breed  in  the 
‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’  June  10th, 

1862,  p.  206. 

* A description,  with  figures,  is 
given  of  this  breed  in  ‘ Journal  of 
Horticulture,’  June  3rd,  1862,  p.  186. 
Some  writers  describe  the  comb  as 
two-horned. 


® Mr.  Crawfurd,  ‘ Descript.  Diet, 
of  the  Indian  Islands,’  p.  1 13.  Ban- 
tams are  mentioned  in  an  ancient 
native  Japanese  Encycloptedia,  as  I am 
informed  by  Mr.  Birch  of  the  British 
Museum. 

® ‘ Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poul- 
try,’ 1848. 


17 


2\2 


FO^^'LS. 


Chap.  VTI 


12.  Silk  Fowls.— Feathers  silky,  with  the  primary  wing  and 
tail-feathers  imperfect;  skin  and  periosteum  of  bones  black;  comb 
and  wattles  dark  leaden-blue ; ear-lappets  tinged  with  blue;  legs 
thin,  often  furnished  with  an  additional  toe.  Size  rather  small. 

13.  Sooty  Fowls. — An  Indian  breed,  having  the  peculiar  appear- 
ance of  a white  bird  smeared  with  soot,  with  black  skin  and 
periosteum.  The  hens  alone  are  thus  characterised. 

From  this  synopsis  we  see  that  the  several  breeds  differ 
considerably,  and  they  would  have  been  nearly  as  interesting 
for  us  as  pigeons,  if  there  had  been  equally  good  evidence 
that  all  had  descended  from  one  parent-species.  Most  fanciers 
believe  that  they  are  descended  from  several  primitive  stocks. 
The  Eev.  E.  S.  Dixon  argues  strongly  on  this  side  of  the 
question ; and  one  fancier  even  denounces  the  opposite  con- 
clusion by  asking,  “ Do  we  not  perceive  pervading  this  spirit, 
the  spirit  of  the  Deist  f ” Most  naturalists,  with  the  exception 
of  a few,  such  as  Temminck,  believe  that  all  the  breeds  have 
proceeded  from  a single  species  ; but  authority  on  such  a point 
goes  for  little.  Fanciers  look  to  all  parts  of  the  world  as  the 
possible  sources  of  their  unknown  stocks ; thus  ignoring  the 
laws  of  geographical  distribution.  They  know  well  that  the 
several  kinds  breed  truly  even  in  colour.  They  assert,  but,  as 
we  shall  see,  on  very  weak  grounds,  that  niost  of  the  breeds 
are  extremely  ancient.  They  are  strongly  impressed  with  the 
great  difference  between  the  chief  kinds,  and  they  ask  with 
force,  can  differences  in  climate,  food,  or  treatment  have  pro- 
duced birds  so  different  as  the  black  stately  Spanish,  the 
diminutive  elegant  Bantam,  the  heavy  Cochin  with  its  many 
peculiarities,  and  the  Polish  fowl  wdth  its  great  top -knot  and 
protuberant  skull?  But  fanciers,  whilst  admitting  and  even 
overrating  the  effects  of  crossing  the  various  breeds,  do  not 
sufficiently  regard  the  probability  of  the  occasional  birth, 
during  the  course  of  . centuries,  of  birds  with  abnormal  and 
hereditary  peculiarities  ; they  overlook  the  effects  of  correla- 
tion of  growth— of  the  long-continued  use  and  disuse  of  parts, 
and  of  some  direct  result  from  changed  food  and  climate, 
though  on  this  latter  head  I have  found  no  sufficient  evidence; 
and  lastly,  they  all,  as  far  as  I know,  entirely  overlook  the  all- 
important  subject  of  unconscious  or  unmethodical  selection 


^ ‘ Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry.’  1848. 


Chap.  VII 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


243 


though  they  are  well  aware  that  their  birds  differ  individually 
and  that  by  selecting  the  best  birds  for  a few  generations  they, 
can  improve  their  stocks. 

. An  amateur  writes  ^ as  follows  ' The  fact  that  poultry 
have  until  lately  received  but  little  attention  at  the  hands  ol 
the  fancier,  and  been  entirely  conftned  to  the  domains  of  tlie 
producer  for  the  market,  would  alone  suggest  the  improba- 
bility of  that  constant  and  unremitting  attention  having  been 
observed  in  breeding,  which  is  requisite  to  the  consummating 
in  the  offspring  of  any  two  birds  transmittable  forms  not 
exhibited  by  the  parents.”  This  at  first  sight  appears  true. 
Silt  in  a future  chapter  on  Selection,  abundant  facts  will  be 
given  showing  not  only  that  careful  breeding,  but  that  actual 
selection  was  practised  during  ancient  periods,  and  by  barely 
civilized  races  of  man.  In  the  case  of  the  fowl  I can  adduce 
no  direct  facts  showing  that  selection  was  anciently  practised  ; 
but  the  Eomans  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era- 
kept  six  or  seven  breeds,  and  Columella  “ particularly  recom- 
mends as  the  best,  those  sorts  that  have  five  toes  and  white 
ears.”  ® In  the  fifteenth  century  several  breeds  were  known 
and  described  in  Europe  ; and  in  China,  at  nearly  the  same 
period,  seven  kinds  were  named.  A more  striking  case  is  that 
at  present,  in  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  semi-barbarous 
inhabitants  have  distinct  native  names  for  no  less  than  nine 
sub -breeds  of  the  Game  fowl.^®  Azara,^^  who  wrote  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  states  that  hi  the  interior  parts 
of  South  America,  where  I should  not  have  expected  that  the 
least  care  would  have  been  taken  of  poultry,  a black-skinned 
and  black-boned  breed  is  kept,  from  being  considered  fertile 
and  its  flesh  good  for  sick  persons.  Now  every  one  who  has 
kept  poultry  knows  how  impossible  it  is  to  keep  several 
breeds  distinct  unless  the  utmost  care  be  taken  in  separating 
the  sexes.  Will  it  then  be  pretended  that  those  persons  who, 

® Ferguson’s  ‘ Illustrated  Series  of  of  the  Domesticated  Animals  to  Civili- 
Rare  and  Prize  Poixltry,’  1854,  p.  vi.  zation,’  separately  printed,  p.  (5;  first 
Preface.  • read  before  the  Brit,  Assoc,  at  Oxford, 

® Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  in  his  ‘ Orna-  1860. 
mental  Poultry,’  p.  20.3,  gives  an  ac-  ” ‘Quadrup^des  du  Paraguay,’ tcm. 
count  of  Columella’s  work.  ii.  p.  324. 

Mr.  Crawfurd  ‘ On  the  Relation 


244 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  Vll 


in  ancient  times  and  in  semi-civilized  countries  tc  ok  pains  to 
keep  the  breeds  distinct,  and  who  therefore  valued  them, 
would  not  occasionally  have  destroyed  inferior  birds  and  occa- 
sionally have  preserved  their  best  birds?  This  is  all  that  is 
required.  It  is  not  pretended  that  any  one  in  ancient  times 
intended  to  form  a new  breed,  or  to  modify  an  old  breed 
according  to  some  ideal  standard  of  excellence.  He  who 
cared  for  poultry  would  merely  wish  to  obtain,  and  afterwards 
to  rear,  the  best  birds  which  he  could ; but  this  occasional 
preservation  of  the  best  birds  would  in  the  course  of  time 
modify  the  breed,  as  surely,  though  by  no  means  as  rapidly, 
as  does  methodical  selection  at  the  present  day.  If  one  person 
out  of  a hundred  or  out  of  a thousand  attended  to  the  breeding 
of  his  birds,  this  would  be  sufficient ; for  the  birds  thus  tended 
would  soon  become  superior  to  others,  and  would  form  a new 
strain  ; and  this  strain  would,  as  explained  in  the  last  chapter 
slowly  have  its  characteristic  differences  augmented,  and  at 
last  be  converted  into  a new  sub-breed  or  breed.  But  breeds 
would  often  be  for  a time  neglected  and  would  deteriorate ; 
they  would,  however,  partially  retain  their  character,  and 
afterwards  might  again  come  into  fashion  and  be  raised  to  a 
standard  of  perfection  higher  than  their  former  standard  ; as 
has  actually  occurred  quite  recently  with  Polish  fowls.  If, 
however,  a breed  were  utterly  neglected,  it  would  become 
extinct,  as  has  recently  happened  with  one  of  the  Polish  sub- 
breeds. Whenever  in  the  course  of  past  centuries  a bird 
appeared  with  some  slight  abnormal  structure,  such  as  with  a 
lark-like  crest  on  its  head,  it  would  probably  often  have  been 
preserved  from  that  love  of  novelty  which  leads  some  persons 
in  England  to  keep  rumpless  fowls,  and  others  in  India  to 
keep  frizzled  fowls.  And  after  a time  any  such  abnormal 
appearance  would  be  carefully  preserved,  from  being  esteemed 
a sign  of  the  purity  and  excellence  of  the  breed  ; for  on  this 
l^rinciple  the  Romans  eighteen  centuries  ago  valued  the  fifth 
toe  and  the  white  ear-lobe  in  their  fowls. 

Thus  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  abnormal  cha- 
racters, though  at  first  only  slight  in  degree;  from  the  effects 
of  the  use  and  the  disuse  of  parts ; possibly  from  the  direct 
effects  of  changed  climate  and  food ; from  correlation  of 


Chap.  Vll 


THEIE  PARENTAGE. 


245 


growth ; from  occasional  reversions  to  old  and  long-lost 
characters ; from  the  crossing  of  breeds,  when  more  than 
one  had  }^en  formed ; but,  above  all,  from  unconscious 
selection  carried  on  during  many  generations,  there  is  no 
insuperable  difficulty,  to  the  best  of  my  judgment,  in  believ- 
ing that  all  the  breeds  have  descended  from  some  one  parent- 
source.  Can  any  single  species  be  named  from  which  we 
may  reasonably  suppose  that  all  are  descended^?  The  Gallas 
hanhiva  apparently  fulfils  every  requirement.  I have  already 
given  as  fair  an  account  as  I could  of  the  arguments  in 
favour  of  the  multiple  origin  of  the  several  breeds ; and  now 
I will  give  those  in  favour  of  their  common  descent  from 
G.  hanhiva. 


But  it  will  be  convenient  first  briefly  to  describe  all  the  known 
species  of  Callus.  The  O.  sonneratii  does  not  range  into  the  northern 
parts  of  India;  according  to  Colonel  Sykes/^  it  presents  at  different 
heights  of  the  Ghauts,  two  strongly  marked  varieties,  perhaps 
deserving  to  be  called  species.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be 
the  primitive  stock  of  all  our  domestic  breeds,  and  this  shows  that 
it  closely  approaches  the  common  fowl  in  general  structure ; but  its 
hackles  partially  consist  of  highly  peculiar,  horny  laminae,  trans- 
versely banded  with  three  colours ; and  I have  met  no  authentic 
account  of  any  such  character  having  been  observed  in  any  domestic 
breed.^^  This  species  also  differs  greatly  from  the  common  fowl,  in 
the  comb  being  finely  serrated,  and  in  the  loins  being  destitute  of 
true  hackles.  Its  voice  is  utterly  different.  It  crosses  readily  in 
India  with  domestic  hens ; and  Mr  Blyth  raised  nearly  100  hybrid 
chickens;  but  they  were  tender  and  mostly  died  whilst  young. 
Those  which  were  reared  were  absolutely  sterile  when  crossed  inter 
se  or  with  either  parent.  At  the  Zoological  Gardens,  however,  some 
hybrids  of  the  same  parentage  were  not  quite  so  sterile : Mr.  Dixon, 
as  he  informed  me,  made,  with  Mr.  Yarrell’s  aid,  particular  inquiries 
on  this  subject,  and  was  assured  that  out  of  50  eggs  only  five  or  six 
chickens  were  reared.  Some,  however,  of  these  half-bred  birds  were 
crossed  with  one  of  their  parents,  namely,  a Bantam,  and  produced 
a few  extremely  feeble  chickens.  Mr.  Dixon  also  procured  some  of 
these  same  birds  and  crossed  them  in  several  ways,  but  all  were 


‘ Proc.  Zoolog,  Soc.’  1832,  p, 

151. 

These  feathers  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  W,  Marshall, ‘ Der  Zoology 
Garten,’  April  1874,  p.  124.  I ex- 
amined the  feathers  of  some  hybrids 
raised  in  the  Zoological  Gardens 
between  the  male  G.  sonneratii  and  a 


red  game-hen,  and  they  exhibited  the 
true  character  of  those  of  G.  sonne- 
ratii,  except  that  the  horny  laminae 
were  much  smaller. 

See  also  an  excellent  letter  on 
the  Poultry  of  India,  by  Mr.  Blyth, 
in  ‘Gardiner’s  Chronicle,’  1851,  p 
619. 


246 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  Vll 


more  or  less  infertile.  Nearly' similar  experiments  have  recently 
been  tried  on  a great  scale  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  with  almost 
the  same  resnlt.^“  Out  of  500  eggs,  raised  from  various  first  crosses 
and  hybrids,  between  G.  somieraUi,  hankiva,  and  varius,  only  12 
chickens  were  reared,  and  of  these  only  three  were  the  product  of 
hybrids  inter  se.  From  these  facts,  and  from  the  above-mentioned 
strongly-marked  differences  in  structure  between  the  domestic  fowl 
and  (r.  sonneratii,  we  may  reject  this  latter  species  as  the  parent  of 
any  domestic  breed. 

Ceylon  possesses  a fowl  peculiar  to  the  island,  viz.  G.  stanleyii ; 
this  species  approaches  so  closely  (except  in  the  colouring  of  the 
comb)  to  the  domestic  fowl,  that  Messrs.  Layard  and  Kellaert  would 
have  considered  it,  as  they  inform  me,  as  one  of  the  parent-stocks, 
had  it  not  been  for  its  singularly  different  voice.  This  bird,  like  the 
last,  crosses  readily  with  tame  hens,  and  even  visits  solitary  farms 
and  ravishes  them.  Two  hybrids,  a male  and  female,  thus  produced, 
were  found  by  Mr.  Mitford  to  be  quite  sterile : both  inherited  the 
peculiar  voice  of  G.  stanleyii.  This  species,  then,  may  in  all  pro- 
bability be  rejected  as  one  of  the  primitive  stocks  of  the  domestic 
fowl. 

Java  and  the  islands  eastward  as  far  as  Flores  are  inhabited  by 
G.  varius  (or  furcatus),  which  differs  in  so  many  characters — green 
plumage,  unserrated  comb,  and  single  median  wattle — that  no  one 
supposes  it  to  have  been  the  parent  of  any  one  of  our  breeds ; yet, 
as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Crawfurd,’^  hybrids  are  commonly  raised 
between  the  male  G.  varius  and  the  common  hen,  and  are  kept  for 
their  great  beauty,  but  are  invariably  sterile : this,  however,  was 
not  the  case  with  some  bred  in  the  Zoological  Gardens.  These 
hybrids  were  at  one  time  thought  to  be  specifically  distinct,  and 
were  named  G.  oeneus.  Mr.  Blyth  and  others  believe  that  the  G. 
temminckii^^  (of  which  the  history  is  not  known)  is  a similar  hybrid. 
Sir  J.  Brooke  sent  me  some  skins  of  domestic  fowls  from  Borneo, 
and  across  the  tail  of  one  of  these,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  observed,  there 
were  transverse  blue  bands  like  those  which  he  had  seen  on  the  tail- 
feathers  of  hybrids  from  G.  varius,  reared  in  the  Zoological  Gardens. 
This  fact  apparently  indicates  that  some  of  the  fowls  of  Borneo  have 
been  slightly  affected  by  crosses  with  G.  varius,  but  the  case  may 
possibly  be  one  of  analogous  variation.  I may  just  allude  to  the  G. 
giyanteus,  so  often  referred  to  in  works  on  poultry  as  a wild  species ; 
but  Marsden  the  first  describer,  speaks  of  it  as  a tame  breed ; and 
the  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  evidently  has  the  aspect  of  a 
domestic  variety. 


Mr.  S.  J.  Salter,  in  ‘ Natural 
History  Review,’  April  1863,  p.  276. 

See  also  Mr.  Layard’s  paper  in 
‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  History,’ 
2nd  series,  vol.  xiv.  p.  62. 

See  also  Mr.  Crawfurd’s  ‘ Descrip- 
tive Diet,  of  the  Indian  Islands,’  1856, 


p.  113. 

Described  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray, 
‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc,’  1849,  p.  62. 

The  passage  from  IVIarsden  is 
given  by  Mr.  Di.xon  in  his  ‘Poultry. 
Book,’ p.  176.  No  ornithologist  nov 
ranks  this  bird  as  a distinct  species. 


Chap.  VII 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


247 


The  last  species  to  be  mentioned,  namely,  Oallzifi  bankiva,  has  a 
much  wider  geographical  range  than  the  three  previous  species  ; it 
inhabits  Northern  India  as  far  west  as  Sinde,  and  ascends  the 
Himalaya  to  a height  of  4000  ft. ; it  inhabits  Burmah,  the  Malajy^ 
peninsula,  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
the  Malayan  archipelego  as  far  eastward  as  Timor.  This  species 
varies  considerably  in  the  wild  state.  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that 
the  specimens,  both  male  and  female,  brought  from  near  the 
Himalaya,  are  rather  paler  coloured  than  those  from  other  parts  of 
India  ; whilst  those  from  the  Malay  peninsula  and  Java  are  brighter 
coloured  than  the  Indian  birds.  I have  seen  specimens  from  these 
countries,  and  the  difference  of  tint  in  the  hackles  was  conspicuous. 
The  Malayan  hens  were  a shade  redder  on  the  breast  and  neck  than 
the  Indian  hens.  The  Malayan  males  generally  had  a red  ear-lappet, 
instead  of  a white  one  as  in  India ; but  Mr.  Blyth  has  seen  one 
Indian  specimen  without  the  white  ear-lappet.  The  legs  are  leaden 
blue  in  the  Indian,  whereas  they  show  some  tendency  to  be  yellowish 
in  the  Malayan  and  Javan  specimens.  In  the  former  Mr.  Blyth 
finds  the  tarsus  remarkably  variable  in  length.  According  to 
Temminck  the  Timor  specimens  differ  as  a local  race  from  that  of 
Java.  These  several  wild  varieties  have  not  as  yet  been  ranked  as 
distinct  species ; if  they  should,  as  is  not  unlikely,  be  hereafter  thus 
ranked,  the  circumstance  would  be  quite  immaterial  as  far  as  the 
parentage  and  differences  of  our  domestic  breeds  are  concerned. 
Tiie  wild  6r.  bankiva  agrees  most  closely  with  the  black-breasted 
red  Game-breed,  in  colouring  and  in  all  other  respects,  except  in 
being  smaller,  and  in  the  tail  being  carried  mmre  horizontally.  But 
the  manner  in  which  the  tail  is  carried  is  highly  variable  in  many 
of  our  breeds,  for,  as  Mr.  Brent  informs  me,  the  tail  slopes  much  in 
the  Malays,  is  erect  in  the  Games  and  some  other  breeds,  and  is 
more  than  erect  in  Dorkings,  Bantams,  &c.  There  is  one  other 
difference  namely,  that  in  G.  bankiva,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth.  the 
neck-hackles  when  first  moulted  are  replaced  during  two  or  three 
months  not  by  other  hackles,  as  with  our  domestic  poultry,  but  by 
short  blackish  feathers.  Mr.  Brent,  however,  has  remarked  that 
these  black  feathers  remain  in  the  wild  bird  after  the  development 
of  the  lower  hackles,  and  appear  in  the  domestic  bird  at  the  same 
time  with  them  : so  that  the  only  difference  is  that  the  lower  hackles 
are  replaced  more  slowly  in  the  wild  than  in  the  tame  bird ; but  as 
confinement  is  known  sometimes  to  affect  the  masculine  plumage, 
this  slight  difference  cannot  be  considered  of  any  importance.  It  is 
a significant  fact  that  the  voice  of  both  the  male  and  female  G. 
bankiva  closely  resembles,  as  Mr.  Blyth  and  others  have  noted,  the 
voice  of  both  sexes  of  the  common  domestic  fowl ; but  the  last  note 
of  the  crow  of  the  wild  bird  is  rather  less  prolonged.  Captain 


‘ Coup-d’oeil  general  sur  I’lnde  Mr.  Blyth,  in  ‘ Annals  and  M.ag. 

Archipelagique,’  tom,  iii.  (184-9),  p.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  2nd  ser.,  vol.  i.  (1848), 

177  ; see  also  Mr.  Blyth  in  ‘ Indian  p.  455 

Sporting  Review,’  vol.  ii.  p.  5,  1856. 


248 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII 


Hutton,  well  known  for  hin  researches  into  the  natural  history  ol 
India,  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  several  crossed  fowls  from  the 
wild  species  and  the  Chinese  bantam ; these  crossed  fowls  bred  freely 
with  bantams,  but  unfortunately  were  not  crossed  inter  se.  Captain 
Hutton  reared  chickens  from  the  eggs  of  the  Qallus  bankiva ; and 
these,  though  at  first  very  wild,  afterwards  became  so  tame  that  they 
would  crowd  round  his  feet.  He  did  not  succeed  in  rearing  them 
to  maturity  ; but  as  he  remarks,  no  wild  gallinaceous  bird  thrives 
well  at  first  on  hard  grain.”  Mr.  Ely  th  also  found  much  difficulty  in 
keeping  G.  bankiva  in  confinement.  In  the  Philippine  Islands, 
however,  the  natives  must  succeed  better,  as  they  keep  wild  cocks 
to  fight  with  their  domestic  game-birds.^^  Sir  Walter  Elliot  informs 
me  that  the  hen  of  a native  domestic  breed  of  Pegu  is  undistinguish- 
able  from  the  hen  of  the  wild  O.  bankiva  ; -and  the  natives  constantly 
catch  wild  cocks  by  taking  tame  cocks  to  fight  with  them  in  the 
woods.^^  Mr.  Crawfurd  remarks  that  from  etymology  it  might  he 
argued  that  the  fowl  was  first  domesticated  by  the  Malays  and 
Javanese.''^^  It  is  also  a curious  fact,  of  which  I have  been  assured 
by  Mr.  Blyth,  that  wild  specimens  of  the  G alius  bankiva,  brought 
from  the  countries  east  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  are  far  more  easily 
tamed  than  those  of  India;  nor  is  this  an  unparalleled  fact,  for,  as 
Humboldt  long  ago  remarked,  the  same  species  sometimes  evinces  a 
more  tameable  disposition  in  one  country  than  in  another.  If  we 
suppose  that  the  G.  bankiva  was  first  tamed  in  Malaya  and  afterwards 
imported  into  India,  we  can  understand  an  observation  made  to  me 
by  Mr.  Blyth,  that  the  domestic  fowls  of  India  do  not  resemble  the 
wild  G.  bankiva  of  India  more  closely  than  do  those  of  Europe. 

From  the  extremely  close  resemblance  in  colour,  general 
structure,  and  especially  in  voice,  between  Gallus  bankiva  and 
the  Game  fowl;  from  their  fertility,  as  far  as  this  has  been 
ascertained,  when  crossed;  from  the  possibility  of  the  wild 
species  being  tamed,  and  from  its  varying  in  the  wild  state, 
we  may  confidently  look  at  it  as  the  parent  of  the  most 
typical  of  all  the  domestic  breeds,  namely,  the  Game  fowl. 
It  is  a significant  fact,  that  almost  all  the  naturalists  in 
India,  namely  Sir  W.  Elliot,  Mr.  S.  N.  Ward,  Mr.  Layard, 
Mr.  J.  C.  Jerdon,  and  Mr.  Blyth,^^  who  are  familiar  with 
G.  bankiva,  believe  that  it  is  the  parent  of  most  or  all  oui 


Crawfurd,  ‘ Desc.  Diet,  of  Indian 
Islands,’  1856,  p.  112. 

23  In  Burmaii,  as  I hear  from  Mr. 
Blyth,  the  wild  and  tame  poultry  con- 
stantly cross  together,  and  irregular 
transitional  forms  may  be  seen. 

2*  Ibid.  p.  113. 

2®  Mr.  Jerdon,  in  the  ‘ Madras 


Journ.  of  Lit.  and  Science.’  vol.  xxii 
p,  2,  speaking  of  G.  bankiva,  says,  “ un- 
questionably the  origin  of  most  of  the 
varieties  of  our  common  fowls.”  For 
Mr.  Blyth,  see  his  excellent  article  in 
‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1851,  p.  619; 
and  in  ‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist..,’ 
vol.  XX,,  1847,  p,  388. 


UiiAP.  TIL 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


249 


domestic  breeds.  But  even  if  it  be  admitted  that  G.  hanJciva 
is  the  parent  of  the  Game  breed,  yet  it  may  be  urged  that 
other  wild  species  have  been  the  parents  of  the  other  domestic 
breeds ; and  that  these  species  still  exist,  though  unknowm,  in 
some  country,  or  have  become  extinct.  The  extinction,  how- 
ever, of  several  species  of  fowls,  is  an  improbable  hj^pothesis, 
seeing  that  the  four  known  species  have  not  become  extinct 
in  the  most  ancient  and  thickl}’-  peopled  regions  of  the-  East. 
There  is,  in  fact,  not  one  other  kind  of  domesticated  bird, 
of  which  the  wild  parent-form  is  unknown,  that  is  become 
extinct.  For  the  discovery  of  new,  or  the  rediscovery  of  old 
species  of  Gallus,  we  must  not  look,  as  fanciers  often  look,  to 
the  whole  world.  The  larger  gallinaceous  birds,  as  Mr.  Blyth 
has  remarked,^®  generally  have  a restricted  range  : we  see 
this  well  illustrated  in  India,  where  the  genus  Galliis  in- 
habits the  base  of  the  Himalaya,  and  is  succeeded  higher  up 
by  Gallophasis,  and  still  higher  up  by  Phasianus.  Australia, 
with  its  islands,  is  out  of  the  question  as  the  home  for 
unknown  species  of  the  genus.  It  is,  also,  as  improbable 
that  Gallas  should  inhabit  South  America  as  'that  a 


‘Gardiner’s  Chronicle’  1851,  p. 

619. 

2^  I haA’e  consulted  an  eminent 
authority,  Mr.  Sclater,  on  this  subject, 
and  he  thinks  that  I have  not  expressed 
myself  too  strongly.  I am  awai’e  that 
one  ancient  author,  Acosta,  speaks  of 
fowls  as  having  inhabited  S.  America 
at  the  period  of  its  discovery ; and 
more  recently,  about  1795,  Olivier  de 
Serres  speaks  of  wild  fowls  in  the 
forests  of  Guiana  ; these  were  probably 
feral  birds.  Dr.  Daniell  tells  me,  he 
believes  that  fowls  have  become  wild 
on  the  west  coast  of  Equatoi  ial 
Africa ; they  may,  however,  not  be 
true  fowls,  but  gallinaceous  birds 
belonging  to  the  genus  Phasidns. 
The  old  voyager  Barbut  says  that 
poultry  are  not  natural  to  Guinea. 
Capt.  W.  Alien  (‘Narrative  of  Niger 
Expedition,’  1848,  vol.  ii.  p.  42)  de- 
scribes wild  fowls  on  Ilha  dos  Rollas, 
an  island  near  St.  Thomas’s  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  ; the  natives  in- 


formed him  that  they  had  escaped 
from  a vessel  wrecked  there  manj 
years  ago  ; they  were  extremely  wild 
and  had  ‘‘a  cry  quite  different  to  that 
of  the  domestic  fowl,”  and  their  ap- 
pearance was  somewhat  changed. 
Hence  it  is  not  a little  doubtful,  not- 
withstanding the  statement  of  the 
natives,  whether  these  birds  really 
were  fowls.  That  the  fowl  has 
become  feral  on  several  islands  is 
certain.  Mr.  Fry,  a very  capable 
judge,  informed  Mr.  Layard,  in  a 
tetter,  that  the  fowls  which  have  run 
wild  on  Ascension  “ had  nearly  all  got 
back  to  their  primitive  colours,  red, 
and  black  cocks,  and  smoky-grey 
hens.”  But  unfortunately  we  do  not 
know  the  colour  of  the  poultry  which 
were  turned  out.  Fowls  havebecom.e 
feral  on  the  Nicobar  Islands  (Blyth 
in  the  ‘Indian  Field,’  1858,  p.  62), 
and  in  theLadrones  (Anson’s  Voyage). 
Those  found  in  the  Pellew  Islands 
Crawfurd)  are  believed  to  be  feral 


250 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII 


humming-bird  should  be  found  in  the  Old  World.  From  the 
character  of  the  other  gallinaceous  birds  of  Africa,  it  is  not 
probable  that  Gallus  is  an  African  genus.  We  need  not 
look  to  the  western  parts  of  Asia,  for  Messrs.  Blyth  and 
Crawfurd,  who  have  attended  to  this  subject,  doubt  whether 
Gallus  ever  existed  in  a wild  state  even  as  far  west  as  Persia. 
Although  the  eai  Best  Greek  writers  speak  of  the  fowl  as  a 
Persian  biid,  this  probably  merely  indicates  its  line  of 
importation.  For  the  discovery  of  unknown  species  we  must 
look  to  India,  to  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  and  to  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  southern 
portion  of  China  is  the  most  likely  country;  but  as  Mr. 
Bl3Th  informs  me,  skins  have  been  exported  from  China 
during  a long  period,  and  living  birds  are  largely  kept  there 
in  aviaries,  so  that  any  native  species  of  Gallus  would  pro- 
bably have  become  known.  Mr.  Birch,  of  the  British 
Museum,  has  translated  for  me  passages  from  a Chinese 
Encyclopaedia  published  in  1609,  but  compiled  from  more 
ancient  documents,  in  which  it  is  said  that  fowls  are 
creatures  of  the  West,  and  were  introduced  into  the  East 
{i.e.  China)  in  a dynasty  1400  b.c.  Whatever  may  be  thought 
of  so  ancient  a date,  we  see  that  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Indian 
regions  were  formerly  considered  by  the  Chinese  as  the  source 
of  the  domestic  fowl.  From  these  several  considerations  we 
must  look  to  the  present  metropolis  of  the  genus,  namely,  to 
the  south-eastern  parts  of  Asia,  for  the  discovery  of  species 
which  were  formerly  domesticated,  but  are  now  unknown  in 
the  wild  state ; and  the  most  experienced  ornithologists  do 
not  consider  it  probable  that  such  species  will  be  discovered. 

In  considering  whether  the  domestic  breeds  are  descended 
from  one  species,  namely,  G.  bankiva,  or  from  several,  we  must 
not  quite  overlook,  though  we  must  not  exaggerate,  the  im- 
portance of  the  test  of  fertility.  Most  of  our  domestic  breeds 
have  been  so  often  crossed,  and  their  mongrels  so  largely 
kept,  that  it  is  almost  certain,  if  any  degree  of  infertility 
had  existed  between  them,  it  would  have  been  detected.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  four  known  species  of  Gallus  when 


and  lastly,  it  is  asserted  that  they  but  whether  this  is  correct  I know 
have  become  feral  in  New  Zealand.  not. 


Cjiap.  VIL  KEVEESrON  AND  ANALOGOUS  EEVEESION. 


251 


crossed  witli  each  otlier,  or  when  crossed,  with  the  exception 
of  6r.  hanklva,  with  the  domestic  fowl,  produce  infertile 
h3’’brids. 

Finally,  we  have  not  such  good  evidence  with  fowls  as 
with  pigeons,  of  all  the  breeds  having  descended  from  a 
single  primitive  stock.  In  both  cases  the  argument  of 
fertility  must  go  for  something ; in  both  we  have  the  im- 
probability of  man  having  succeeded  in  ancient  times  in 
thoroughly  domesticating  several  supposed  species, — most  of 
these  supposed  species  being  extremely  abnormal  as  compared 
with  their  natural  allies, — all  being  now  either  unknown  or 
extinct,  though  the  parent- form  of  no  other  domesticated  bird 
has  been  lost.  But  in  searching  for  the  supposed  parent- 
stocks  of  the  various  breeds  of  the  pigeon,  we  were  enabled 
to  confine  our  search  to  species  having  peculiar  habits  of  life  ; 
whilst  with  fowls  there  is  nothing  in  their  habits  in  any 
marked  manner  distinct  from  those  of  other  gallinaceous 
birds.  In  the  case  of  pigeons,  I have  shown  that  purely- 
bred  birds  of  every  race  and  the  crossed  offspring  of  distinct 
races  frequently  resemble,  or  revert  to,  the  wild  rock-pigeon 
in  general  colour  and  in  each  characteristic  mark.  With 
fowls  we  have  facts  of  a similar  nature,  but  less  strongly 
pronounced,  which  we  will  now  discuss. 

Reversion  and  Analogous  Variation. — Purely-bred  Game, 
Malay,  Cochin,  Dorking,  Bantam,  and,  as  I hear  from  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  Silk  fowls,  may  frequently  or  occasionally  be 
met  with,  which  are  almost  identical  in  plumage  with  the 
wild  6r.  hanldva.  This  is  a fact  well  deserving  attention, 
when  we  reflect  that  these  breeds  rank  amongst  the  most 
distinct.  Fo  wls  thus  coloured  are  called  by  amateurs  black- 
breasted reds.  Hamburghs  properly  have  a very  different 
plumage ; nevertheless,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me,  “ the 
great  difficulty  in  breeding  cocks  of  the  golden-spangled 
variety  is  their  tendency  to  have  black  breasts  and  red  backs.^ 
The  males  of  white  Bantams  and  white  Cochins,  as  thev 
come  to  maturity,  often  assume  a yellowish  or  saffron  tinge ; 
and  the  longer  neck  hackles  of  black  Bantam  cocks, when 

2*  Ml.  Hewitt,  in  ‘The  Poultry  Book,’  by  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  1866,  p.  248. 


252 


FOWLS. 


CiiAi-.  VIE. 


two  or  three  years  old,  not  uncommonly  become  ruddy ; these 
latter  Bantams  occasionally  “ even  moult  brassy-winged,  or 
actually  red-shouldered.”  So  that  in  these  several  cases  we 
see  a plain  tendency  to  reversion  to  the  hues  of  G.  hankiva, 
even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  individual  bird.  With 
Spanish,  Polish,  pencilled  Hamburgh,  silver-spangled  Ham- 
burgh fowls,  and  with  some  other  less  common  breeds,  I have 
never  heard  of  a black-breasted  red  bird  having  appeared. 

From,  my  experience  with  pigeons,  I made  the  following 
crosses.  I first  killed  all  my  own  poultry,  no  others  living 
near  my  house,  and  then  procured,  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier’s 
assistance,  a first-rate  black  Spanish  cock,  and  hens  of  the 
following  pure  breeds, — white  Game,  white  Cochin,  silver- 
spangled  Polish,  silver-spangled  Hamburgh,  silver-pencilled 
Hamburgh,  and  white  Silk.  In  none  of  these  breeds  is  there 
a trace  of  red,  nor  when  kept  pure  have  I ever  heard  of  the 
appearance  of  a red  feather;  though  such  an  occurrence 
would  perhaps  not  be  very  improbable  with  white  Games 
and  white  Cochins.  Of  the  many  chickens  reared  from  the 
above  six  crosses  the  majority  were  black,  both  in  the  down 
and  in  the  first  plumage ; some  were  white,  and  a very  few 
were  mottled  black  and  white.  In  one  lot  of  eleven  mixed 
eggs  from  the  white  Game  and  white  Cochin  by  the  black 
Spanish  cock,  seven  of  the  chickens  were  white,  and  only 
four  black.  I mention  this  fact  to  show  that  whiteness  of 
plumage  is  strongly  inherited,  and  that  the  belief  in  the 
prepotent  power  in  the  male  to  transmit  his  colour  is  not 
always  correct.  The  chickens  were  hatched  in  the  spring, 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  August  several  of  the  young  cocks 
began  to  exhibit  a change,  which  with  some  of  them  increased 
during  the  following  years.  Thus  a young  male  bird  from 
the  silver- spangled  Polish  hen  was  in  its  first  plumage  coal- 
black,  and  combined  in  its  comb,  crest,  wattle,  and  beard,  the 
characters  of  both  parents ; but  when  two  years  old  the 
secondary  wing-feathers  became  largely  and  symmetrically 
marked  with  white,  and,  wherever  in  G.  hankiva  the  hackles 
are  red,  they  were  in  this  bird  greenish-black  along  the  shaft, 
narrowly  bordered  with  brownish-black,  and  this  again 
broadlj"  bordered  with  very  pale  yellowish-bro’vvn  ; so  that  in 


Chap.  VII.  REVERSION  AND  ANALOGOUS  REVERSION.  253 


general  appearance  the  plumage  had  become  pale-colonred 
instead  of  black.  In  this  case,  with  advancing  age  there 
was  a great  change,  but  no  reversion  to  the  red  colour  of 
G.  bankiva. 

A cock  with  a regular  rose  comb  derived  either  from  the 
spangled  or  pencilled  silver  Hamburgh  was  likewise  at  first 
quite  black ; but  in  less  than  a year  the  neck-hackles,  as  in 
the  last  case,  became  whitish,  whilst  those _ on  the  loins 
assumed  a decided  reddish-yellow  tint ; and  here  we  see  the 
first  symptom  of  reversion ; this  likewise  occurred  with  some 
other  young  cocks,  which  need  not  here  be  described.  It  has 
also  been  recorded  by  a breeder,  that  he  crossed  two  silver- 
pencilled  Hamburgh  hens  with  a Spanish  cock,  and  reared  a 
number  of  chickens,  all  of  which  were  black,  the  cocks  having 
golden  and  the  hens  brownish  hackles  ; so  that  in  this  instance 
likewise  there  was  a clear  tendency  to  reversion. 

Two  young  cocks  from  my  white  Game  hen  were  at  first 
snow  white ; of  these,  one  subsequently  assumed  pale  orange- 
coloured  hackles,  chiefly  on  the  loins,  and  the  other  an 
abundance  of  fine  orange  red  hackles  on  the  neck,  loins,  and 
upper  wing-coverts.  Here  again  we  have  a more  decided, 
though  partial,  reversion  to  the  colours  of  G.  hankim.  This 
second  cock  was  in  fact  coloured  like  an  inferior  “pile  Game 
cock;” — now  this  sub-breed  can  be  produced,  as  I am  in- 
formed by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  by  crossing  a black-breasted  red 
Game  cock  with  a white  Game  hen,  and  the  “ pile  ” sub- 
breed  thus  produced  can  afterwards  be  truly  propagated.  So 
that  we  have  the  curious  fact  of  the  glossy-black  Spanish 
cock  and  the  black-breasted  red  Game  cock  when  crossed 
with  white  Game  hens  producing  offspring  of  nearly  the 
same  colours. 

I reared  several  birds  from  the  white  Silk  hen  by  the 
Spanish  cock : all  were  coal-black,  and  all  plainly  showed 
their  parentage  in  having  blackish  combs  and  bones ; none 
inherited  the  so-called  silky  feathers,  and  the  non-inheritance 
of  this  character  has  been . observed  by  others.  The  hens 
never  varied  in  their  plumage.  As  the  young  eocks  grew 

‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Jan.  14th,  1862,  p.  325. 


FOWLS. 


Chap  VIL 


2fii 


old,  one  of  them  assumed  yellowish-white  hachles,  and  thus 
veseinbled  in  a considerable  degree  the  cross  from  the  Ham- 
burgh hen;  the  other  became  a gorgeous  bird,  so  much  so 
that  an  acquaintance  had  it  preserved  and  stuffed  simply  from 
its  beauty.  When  stalking  about  it  closely  resembled  the 
wild  Gallus  hanhiva,  but  with  the  red  feathers  I’ather  darker. 
On  close  comparison  one  considerable  difference  presented 
itself,  namely,  that  the  primary  and  secondary  wing-feathers 
were  edged  with  greenish-black,  instead  of  being  edged,  as  in 
G.  hanJdca,  with  fulvous  and  red  tints.  The  space,  also, 
across  the  back,  which  bears  dark-green  feathers,  was  broader, 
and  the  comb  was  blackish.  In  all  other  respects,  even  in 
trifling  details  of  plumage,  there  was  the  closest  accordance. 
Altogether  it  was  a marvellous  sight  to  compare  this  bird 
first  with  G.  hanldva,  and  then  with  its  father,  the  glossy 
green-black  Spanish  cock,  and  with  its  diminutive  mother, 
the  white  Silk  hen.  This  case  of  reversion  is  the  more  ex- 
traordinary as  the  Spanish  breed  has  long  been  known  to 
breed  true,  and  no  instance  is  on  record  of  its  throwing  a 
single  red  feather.  The  Silk  hen  likewise  breeds  true,  and 
is  believed  to  be  ancient,  for  Aldrovandi,  before  1600,  alludes 
probably  to  this  breed,  and  described  it  as  covered  with  wool. 
It  is  so  peculiar  in  many  characters  that  some  writers  have 
considered  it  as  specifically  distinct ; yet,  as  we  now  see, 
when  crossed  with  the  Spanish  fowl,  it  yields  offspring 
closely  resembling  the  wild  G.  hanJdva. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  been  so  kind  as  to  repeat,  at  my 
request,  the  cross  between  a Spanish  cock  and  Silk  hen,  and 
he  obtained  similar  results ; for  he  thus  raised,  besides  a 
black  hen,  seven  cocks,  all  of  wdiich  were  dark  bodied  with 
more  or  less  orange-red  hackles.  In  the  ensuing  year  he 
paired  the  black  hen . with  one  of  her  brothers,  and  raised 
three  young  cocks,  all  coloured  like  their  father,  and  a black 
hen  mottled  with  white. 

The  hens  from  the  six  above-described  crosses  showed 
liMi'dly  any  tendency  to  revert  to  the  mottled- brown  plumage 
of  the  female  G.  hanldva : one  hen,  however,  from  the  white 
Co(3hin,  which  was  at  first  coai-black,  became  slightly  brown 
or  sooty.  Se\eral  hens,  which  were  for  a long  time  snow- 


Chap.  VII.  REVEESION  AND  ANALOGOUS  REVERSION.  255 


white,  acquired  as  they  grew  old  a few  black  feathers.  A 
hen  from  the  white  Game,  which  was  for  a long  time  entirely 
black  glossed  with  green,  when  two  j^ears  old  had  some  of 
the  primary  wing  feathers  greyish- white,  and  a multitude  of 
feathers  over  her  body  narrowly  and  symmetrically  tipped  or 
laced  with  white.  1 had  expected  that  some  of  the  chickens 
whilst  covered  with  down  would  have  assumed  the  longi- 
tudinal >:tripes  so  general  with  gallinaceous  birds ; but  this 
did  not  occur  in  a single  instance.  Two  or  three  alone 'were 
reddish-brown  about  their  heads.  I was  unfortunate  in 
losing  nearly  all  the  white  chickens  from  the  first  crosses ; 
so  that  black  prevailed  with  the  grandchildren ; but  they 
were  much  diversified  in  colour,  some  being  sooty,  others 
mottled,  and  one  blackish  chicken  had  its  feathers  oddly 
tipped  and  barred  with  brown. 

I will  here  add  a few  miscellaneous  facts  connected  with 
reversion,  and  with  the  law  of  analogous  variation.  This 
law  implies,  as  stated  in  a previous  chapter,  that  the  varieties 
of  one  species  frequently  mock  distinct  but  allied  S23ecies ; 
and  this  fact  is  explained,  according  to,  the  views  which  I 
maintain,  on  the  principle  of  allied  species  having  descended 
from  one  primitive  form.  The  white  Silk  fowl  with  black 
skin  and  bones  degenerates,  as  has  been  observed  by  Mr. 
Hewitt  and  Mr.  h.  Orton,  in  our  climate;  that  is,  it  reverts 
to  the  ordinary  colour  of  the  common  fowl  in  its  skin  and 
bones,  due  care  having  been  taken  to  prevent  any  cross.  In 
Germany^®  a distinct  breed  with  black  bones,  and  with 
black,  not  silky  plumage,  has  likewise  been  observed  to 
degenerate. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that,  when  distinct  breeds  are 
crossed,  fowls  are  frequently  produced  with  their  feathers 
marked  or  pencilled  by  narrow  transverse  lines  of  a darker 
colour.  This  may  be  in  part  explained  by  direct  reversion  to 
the  parent-form,  the  Bankiva  hen  ; for  this  bird  has  all  its 
upper  plumage  finely  mottled  with  dark  and  rufous  brown, 

‘ Die  Hlihner-  und  Pfauenzucht,’’  W,  B.  Tegetmeier,  1866,  p.  222.  I am 
Ulm,  1827,  s.  17.  For  Mr.  Hewitt’s  indebted  to  Mr.  Orton  for  a letter  on 
statement  with  respect  to  the  white  the  same  subject. 

Silk  fowl,  see  the  ‘ Poultry  Book,’  by 


256 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VTl 


with  the  mottling  partiallj^  and  ohscnrely  arranged  in  trans- 
verse lines.  But  the  tendency  to  pencilling  is  probably 
much  strengthened  by  the  law  of  analogous  variation,  for  the 
hens  of  some  other  species  of  Gallus  are  more  plainly  pencilled, 
and  the  hens  of  many  gallinaceous  birds  belonging  to  other 
genera,  as  the  partridge,  have  pencilled  feathers.  Mr.  Teget- 
meier  has  also  remarked  to  me  that,  although  with  domestic 
pigeons  we  have  so  great  a diversity  of  colouring,  we  never 
see  either  pencilled  or  spangled  feathers ; and  this  fact  is 
intelligible  on  the  law  of  analogous  variation,  as  neither  the 
wild  rock  pigeon  nor  any  closely  allied  species  has  such 
feathers.  The  frequent  appearance  of  pencilling  in  crossed 
birds  probably  accounts  for  the  existence  of  “cuckoo”  sub- 
breeds in  the  Game,  Polish,  Dorking,  Cochin,  Andalusian, 
and  Bantam  breeds.  The  plumage  of  these  birds  is  slaty- 
blue  or  grey,  with  each  feather  transversely  barred  with 
darker  lines,  so  as  to  resemble  in  some  degree  the  plumage 
of  the  cuckoo.  It  is  a singular  fact,  considering  that  the 
male  of  no  species  of  Gallus  is  in  the  least  barred,  that  the 
cuckoo -like  plumage  has  often  been  transferred  to  the  male, 
more  especially  in  the  cuckoo  Dorking ; and  the  fact  is  all  the 
more  singular,  as  in  gold-  and  silver-pencilled  Hamburghs, 
in  which  pencilling  is  characteristic  of  the  breed,  the  male  is 
hardly  at  all  pencilled,  this  kind  of  plumage  being  confined  to 
the  female. 

Another  case  of  analogous  variation  is  the  occurrence  of 
spangled  sub-breeds  of  Hamburgh,  Polish,  Malay,  and  Bantam 
fowls.  Spangled  feathers  have  a dark  mark,  properly  crescent- 
shaped,  on  their  tips ; whilst  pencilled  feathers  have  several 
transverse  bars.  ■ Tfie  spangling  cannot  be  due  to  reversion  to 
G.  hanhiva ; nor  does  it  often  follow,  as  I hear  from  Mr.  Teget- 
meier,  from  crossing  distinct  breeds ; but  it  is  a case  of 
analogous  variation,  for  many  gallinaceous  birds  have  spangled 
feathers, — for  instance,  the  common  pheasant.  Hence  spangled 
breeds  are  often  called  “ pheasant  ’’-fowls.  Another  case  of 
analogous  variation  in  several  domestic  breeds  is  inexplicable  ; 
it  is,  that  the  chickens,  whilst  covered  with  down,  of  the 
black  Spanish,  black  Game,  black  Polish,  and  black  Bantam, 
all  have  whi  te  throats  and  breasts,  and  often  have  some  white 


Chap.  VII-  llEVEKSION  AND  ANALOGOUS  VARIATION.  257 

Oil  their  wings.^^  The  editor  of  the  ‘ Poultry  Chronicle 
remarks  that  all  the  breeds  which  properly  have  red  ean 
lappets  occasionally  produce  birds  with  white  ear- lappets. 
This  remark  more  especially  applies  to  the  Game  breed, 
which  of  all  comes  nearest  to  the  G.  hankiva  ; and  we  have 
seen  that  with  this  species  living  in  a state  of  nature,  the 
ear-lappets  vary  in  colour,  being  red  in  the  Malayan  countries, 
and  generally,  but  not  invariably,  white  in  In^. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  my  subject,  I may  repeat 
that  there  exists  one  widely-ranging,  varying,  and  common 
species  of  Gallus,  namely,  G.  hankiva,  which  can  be  tamed, 
produces  fertile  offspring  when  crossed  with  common  fowls, 
and  closely  resembles  in  its  whole  structure,  plumage,  and 
voice  the  Game  breed  ; hence  it  may  be  safely  ranked  as  the 
parent  of  this,  the  most  typical  domesticated  breed.  We 
have  seen  that  there  is  much  difficulty  in  believing  that 
other,  now  unknown,  species  have  been  the  parents  of  the 
other  domestic  breeds.  We  know  that  all  the  breeds  are 
most  closely  allied,  as  shown  by  their  similarity  in  most 
points  of  structure  and  in  habits,  and  by  the  analogous 
manner  in  which  they  vary.  We  have  also  seen  that  several 
of  the  most  distinct  breeds  occasionally  or  habitually  closely 
resemble  in  plumage  G.  hankiva,  and  that  the  crossed  offspring 
of  other  breeds,  which  are  not  thus  coloured,  show  a stronger 
or  weaker  tendency  to  revert  to  this  same  plumage.  Some  of 
the  breeds,  which  appear  the  most  distinct  and  the  least  likely 
to  have  proceeded  from  G.  hankiva,  such  as  Polish  fowls,  with 
their  protuberant  and  little  ossified  skulls,  and  Cochins,  with 
their  imperfect  tail  and  small  wings,  bear  in  these  characters 
the  plain  marks  of  their  artificial  origin.  We  know  well  that 
of  late  years  methodical  selection  has  greatl}^  improved  and 
fixed  many  characters ; and  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  unconscious  selection,  carried  on  for  many  generations, 
will  have  steadily  augmented  each  new  peculiarity,  and  thus 
have  given  rise  to  new  breeds.  As  soon  as  two  or  three 
breeds  were  once  formed,  crossing  would  come  into  play  in 

Dixon,  ‘ Ornamental  and  Do-  ‘ Prize  Poultry,’  p.  260. 
mestic  Poultry,’  pp.  253,  324,  335.  i Poultry  Chronicle,’  vol.  ii. 

For  game  fowls,  see  Ferguson  on  71. 

18 


258 


FOWLS. 


ClIAl>.  VI I 


changing  their  character  and  in  increasing  their  nnmher 
Brahma  Bootras,  according  to  an  account  lately  published  in 
America,  offer  a good  instance  of  a breed, . lately  formed  by 
a cross,  which  can  be  truly  propagated.  The  well-known 
Sebright  Bantams  offer  another  and  similar  instance.  Hence 
it  may  be  concluded  that  not  only  the  Game-breed  but  that 
all  our  breeds  are  probably  the  descendants  of  the  Malayan 
or  Indian  variety  of  G.  hanldva.  If  so,  this  species  has  varied 
greatly  since  it  was  first  domesticated;  but  theie  has  been 
ample  time,  as  we  shall  now  show. 

History  of  the  Fowl. — Riitimeyer  found  no  remains  of  the 
fowl  in  the  ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellings  ; but,  according  to 
Jeitteles,^^  such  have  certainly  since  been  found  associated 
with  extinct  animals  and  prehistoric  remains.  It  is,  there- 
fore a strange  fact  that  the  fowl  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  nor  figured  on  the  ancient^  Egyptian  monuments. 
It  is  not  referred  to  by  Homer  or  Hesiod  (about  900  b.c.)  ; 
but  is  mentioned  by  Theognis  and  Aristophanes  between 
400  and  500  b.c.  It  is  figured  on  some  of  the  Babylonian 
cylinders,  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  b.c.,  of 
which  Mr.  Layard  sent  me  an  impression ; and  on  the  Harpy 
Tomb  in  Lycia,  about  600  b.c.  : so  that  the  fowl  apparently 
reached  Europe  in  a domesticated  condition  somewhere  about 
the  sixth  century  b.c.  It  had  travelled  still  farther  westward 
by  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  for  it  was  found  in  Britain 


‘ Die  vorgeschichtlichen  Alter- 
thiimei’,’  II.  Theil,  1872,  p.  5.  Dr. 
Pickering,  in  his  ‘ Races  of  Man,’ 
1850,  p.  874,  says  that  the  head  and 
neck  of  a fowl  is  carried  in  a Tribute- 
procession  to  Thoutmousis  III.  (1445 
B.C.) ; but  Mr.  Birch  of  the  British 
Museum  doubts  whether  the  figure 
can  be  identified  as  the  .head  of  a 
fowl.  Some  caution  is  necessary  with 
reference  to  the  absence  of  figures 
of  the  fowl  on  the  ancient  Egyptian 
monuments,  on  account  of  the  strong 
and  widely  prevalent  prejudice  against 
this  bird.  I am  informed  by  the 
Rev.  S.  Erhardt  that  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  from  4°  to  6°  south  of  the 
equator,  most  of  the  pagan  tribes  at 
the  present  day  hold  the  fowl  in 


aversion.  The  natives  of  the  Pel  lew 
Islands  would  not  eat  the  fowl,  nor  will 
the  Indians  in  some  parts  of  S. 
America.  For  the  ancient  history  of 
the  fowl,  see  also  Volz,  ‘ Beitrage  zur 
Culturgeschichte,’  1852,  s.  77;  and 
Isid.  Geoffroy  St. -Hilaire,  ‘ Hist.  Nat 
Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  61.  Mr.  Crawfurd 
has  given  an  admirable  history  of  the 
fowl  in  his  paper  ‘ On  the  Relation 
of  Domesticated  Animals  to  Civilisa- 
tion,’ read  before  the  Brit.  Assoc,  at 
Oxford  in  1860,  and  since  printed 
separately.  I quote  from  him  on  the 
Greek  poet  Theognis,  and  on  the 
Harpy  Tomb  described  by  Sir  C. 
Fellowes.  I quote  from  a letter  of 
Mr.  Blyth’s  with  respect  to  the  Insti- 
tutes of  Mann. 


CilAP.  VII. 


THEIR  HISTORY. 


259 


by  Julius  Caisar.  In  India  it  must  have  been  domesticated 
when  tlie  Institutes  of  Manu  were  written,  that  is,  according 
to  iSir  W.  Jones,  1 200  b.g.,  but,  according  to  the  later  authority 
of  Mr.  H.  Wilson,  only  800  b.c.,  for  the  domestic  fowl  is 
forbidden,  whilst  the  wild  is  permitted  to  be  eaten.  If,  as 
before  remarked,  we  may  trust  the  old  Chinese  Encyclopasdia, 
the  fowl  must  have  been  domesticated  several  centuries 
earlier,  as  it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  West 
into  China  1400  b.g. 

Sufficient  materials  do  not  exist  for  tracing  the  history 
of  the  separate  breeds.  About  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  Columella  mentions  a five-toed  fighting  breed, 
and  some  provincial  breeds ; but  we  know  nothing  about 
them.  He  also  alludes  to  dwarf  fowls  ; but  these  cannot 
have  been  the  same  with  our  Bantams,  which,  as  Mr. 
Crawfurd  has  shown,  were  imported  from  Japan  into  Bantam 
in  Java.  A dwarf  fowl,  probably  the  true  Bantam,  is  re- 
ferred to  in  an  old  Japanese  Encyclopeedia,  as  I am  informed 
by  Mr.  Birch.  In  the  Chinese  Encyclopfedia  published  in 
1590,  but  comjiiled  from  various  sources,  some  of  high 
antiquity,  seven  breeds  are  mentioned,  including  what  we 
should  now  call  Jumpers  or  Creepers,  and  likewise  fowls  with 
black  feathers,  bones,  and  flesh.  In  1600  Aldrovandi  de- 
scribes seven  or  eight  breeds  of  fowls,  and  this  is  the  most 
ancient  record  from  which  the  age  of  our  European  breeds 
can  be  inferred.  The  Gallus  turcicvs  certainly  seems  to  be  a 
pencilled  Hamburgh ; but  Mr.  Brent,  a most  capable  judge, 
thinks  that  Aldrovandi  “evidently  figured  what  he  happened 
to  see,  and  not  the  best  of  the  breed.”  Mr.  Brent,  indeed, 
consider^  all  Aldrovandi ’s  fowls  as  of  impure  breed ; but  it  is 
a far  more  probable  view  that  all  our  breeds  have  been  much 
improved  and  modified  since  bis  time;  for,  as  he  went  to  the 
expense  of  so  many  figures,  he  probably  would  have  secured 
characteristic  specimens.  The  Silk  fowl,  however,  probably 
then  existed  in  its  present  state,  as  did  almost  certainly  the 
fowl  with  frizzled  or  reversed  feathers.  Mr.  Dixon  considers 

‘ Ornamental  aud  Domestic  Poul-  312.  For  Golden  Hamburghs,  see 
try,’  1847,  p.  185 ; for  passages  Aloin's  ‘ Natural  History  of  Birds, 
translated  from  Columella,  see  p.  3 vols.,  with  plates  1731-38 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII, 


2ryj 


Aldrovaiidi’s  Paduan  fowl  as  “ a variety  of  the  Polish, ” 
whereas  Mr.  Brent  believes  it  to  have  been  more  nearly  allied 
to  the  Malay.  The  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  skull  of  the 
Polish  breed  were  noticed  by  P.  Borelli  in  1056.  I may  add 
that  in  1737  one  Polish  sub-breed,  viz.,  the  Golden-spaugled, 
was  known ; but  judging  from  Albin’s  description,  the  comb 
was  then  larger,  the  crest  of  feathers  much  smaller,  the  breast 
more  coarsely  spotted,  and  the  stomach  and  thighs  much 
blacker:  a Golden-spangled  Polish  fowl  in  this  condition 
would  now  be  of  no  value. 

Differences  in  external  and  Internal  Structure  between  the 
Breeds:  Individual  Variability. — Fowls  have  been  exposed  to 
diversified  conditions  of  life,  and  as  we  have  just  seen  there 
has  been  ample  time  for  much  variability  and  for  the  slow 
action  of  unconscious  selection.  As  there  are  good  grounds 
for  believing  that  all  the  breeds  are  descended  from  Gallus 
hankiva,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  describe  in  some  detail  the 
chief  points  of  difference.  Beginning  with  the  eggs  and 
chickens,  I will  pass  on  to  their  secondary  sexual  characters, 
and  then  to  their  differences  in  external  structure  and  in  the 
skeleton.  I enter  on  the  following  details  chiefly  to  show 
how  variable  almost  every  character  has  become  under 
domestication. 

Eggs. — Mr.  Dixon  remarks that  ‘‘to  every  hen  belongs  an 
individual  peculiarity  in  the  form,  colour,  and  size  of  her  egg,  which 
never  changes  during  her  life-time,  so  long  as  she  remains  in 
health,  and  which  is  as  well  known  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
taking  her  produce,  as  the  hand-writing  of  their  nearest  acquain- 
tance.” I believe  that  this  is  generally  true,  and  that,  if  no  great 
number  of  hens  be  kept,  the  eggs  of  each  can  almost  always  be  re- 
cognised. The  eggs  of  differently  sized  breeds  naturally  differ  much 
in  size ; but  apparently,  not  always  in  strict  relation  to  the  size  of 
the  hen : thus  the  Malay  is  a larger  bird  than  the  Spanish,  but 
generally  she  produces  not  such  large  eggs;  white  Bantams  are 
said  to  lay  smaller  eggs  than  other  Bantams  white  Cochins,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  I hear  from  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  certainly  lay  larger 
eggs  than  buff  Cochins.  The  eggs,  howeyer,  of  the  different  breeds 


‘ Ornamental  and  Dcmestic  Poul- 
try,’ p.  152. 

36  iTerguson  on  ‘ Rare  Prize  Poul- 
try,’ p.  297  This  writer,  I am 


informed,  cannot  generally  be  trustol 
He  gives,  however,  figures  and  mu(  li 
information  on  eggs.  See  pp.  34  and 
235  on  the  eggs  of  the.  Game  fowl. 


CuAP.  VIL  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  BREEDS. 


261 


vary  considerably  in  character ; for  instance,  Mr.  Ballance  states 
that  his  Malay  “ pullets  of  last  year  laid  eggs  eqnal  in  size  to  those 
of  any  duck,  and  other  Malay  hens,  two  or  three  years  old,  laid 
eggs  very  little  larger  than  a good  sized  Bantam’s  egg.  Some  were 
as  white  as  a SiDanish  hen’s  egg,  and  others  varied  from  a light  cream- 
colour  to  a deep  rich  buff,  or  even  to  a brown.”  The  shape  also 
varies,  the  two  ends  being  much  more  equally  rounded  in  Cochins 
than  in  Games  or  Polish.  Spanish  fowls  lay  smoother  eggs  than 
Cochins,  of  which  the  eggs  are  generally  granulated.  The  shell  in 
this  latter  breed,  and  more  especially  in  Malays  is  apt  to  be  thicker 
than  in  Games  or  Spanish ; but  the  Minorcas,  a sub-breed  of  Spanish, 
are  said  to  lay  harder  eggs  than  true  Spanish.®®  Tbe  colour  difCers 
considerably, — the  Cochins  laying  buff-coloured  eggs ; the  Malays  a 
paler  variable  buff;  and  Games  a still  paler  buff.  It  would  appear 
that  darker-coloured  eggs  characterise  the  breeds  which  have  lately- 
come  from  the  East,  or  are  still  closely  allied  to  those  now  living 
there.  The  colour  of  the  yolk,  according  to  Ferguson,  as  well  as  of 
the  shell,  differs  slightly  in  the  sub-breeds  of  the  Game.  I am 
also  informed  by  Mr.  Brent  that  dark  partridge-coloured  Cochin 
hens  lay  darker  coloured  eggs  than  the  other  Cochin  sub-breeds. 
The  flavour  and  richness  of  the  egg  certainly  differ  in  different 
breeds.  The  productiveness  of  the  several  breeds  is  very  different. 
Spanish,  Polish,  and  Hamburgh  hens  have  lost  the  incubating 
instinct. 

Chickens. — As  the  young  of  almost  all  gallinaceous  birds,  even  of 
the  black  curassow  and  black  grouse,  whilst  covered  with  down,  are 
longitudinally  striped  on  the  back, — of  which  character,  when  adult, 
neither  sex  retains  a trace, — it  might  have  been  expected  that  the 
chickens  of  all  our  domestic  fowls  would  have  been  similarly 
striped.®®  This  could,  however,  hardly  have  been  expected,  when 
the  adult  plumage  in  both  sexes  has  undergone  so  great  a change 
as  to  be  wholly  white  or  black.  In  white  fowls  of  various  breeds  the 
chickens  are  uniformly  yellowish  white,  passing  in  the  black-boned 
Silk  fowl  into  bright  canary-yellow.  This  is  also  generally  the 
case  with  the  chickens  of  white  Cochins,  but  I hear  from  Mr.  Zmliost 
that  they  are  sometimes  of  a buff  or  oak  colour,  and  that  all  those 
of  this  latter  colour,  which  were  watched,  turned  out  males.  The 
chickens  of  buff  Cochins  are  of  a golden-yellow,  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  paler  tint  of  the  white  Cochins,  and  are  often  longitudinally 


See  ‘ Poultry  Book,’  by  Mr. 
Tegctmeier,  1866,  pp.  81  and  78. 

‘ The  Cottage  Gardener,’  Oct. 
1855,  p.  13.  On  the  thinness  of  the 
eggs  of  Game-fowls,  see  Mowbray  on 
Poultry,  7th  edit.,  p.  13. 

My  information,  which  is  very 
far  from  perfect,  on  chickens  in  the 
down,  is  derived  chiefly  from  Mr. 


Dixon’s  ‘ Ornamental  and  Domestic 
Poultry.’  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent  has  also 
communicated  to  me  many  facts  by 
letter,  as  has  Mr.  Tegetmeier.  I will 
in  each  case  mark  my  authority  by 
the  name  within  brackets.  For  the 
chickens  of  white  Silk-fowls,  sec 
Tegetmeier’s  ‘Poultry  Book,’  1866,  p 
221. 


262 


FOWLS. 


Chai>.  VIL 


streaked  with  dark  shades:  the  chickens  of  silver-cinnamon 
Cochins  are  almost  always  of  a bnff  colour.  The  chickens  of  the 
white  Game  and  white  Dorking  breeds,  when  held  in  particular 
lights,  sometimes  exhibit  (on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Brent)  faint  traces 
of  longitudinal  stripes.  Fowls  which  are  entirely  black,  namely, 
Spanish,  black  Game,  black  Polish,  and  black  Bantams,  display  a 
new  character,  for  their  chickens  have  their  breasts  and  throats 
7iiore  or  less  white,  with  sometimes  a little  white  elsewhere. 
Spanish  chickens  also,  occasionally  (Brent),  have,  where  the  down 
sras  white,  their  first  true  feathers  tipped  for  a time  Avith  white. 
The  primordially  striped  character  is  retained  by  the  chickens  of 
most  of  the  Game  sub-breeds  (Brent,  Dixon)  ; by  Dorkings  ; by  the 
partridge  and  grouse-coloured  sub-breeds  of  Cochins  (Brent),  but 
not,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  sub-breeds ; by  the  pheasant-Malay 
(Dixon),  but  apparently  not  (at  which  1 am  much  surprised)  by 
other  Malays.  The  following  breeds  and  sub-breeds  are  barely,  or 
not  at  all,  longitudinally  striped:  viz.,  gold  and  silver  pencilled 
Hamburghs,  which  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  each  other 
(Brent)  in  the  down,  both  having  a few  dark  spots  on  the  head  and 
rump,  with  occasionally  a longitudinal  stripe  (Dixon)  on  the  back  of 
the  neck.  1 have  seen  only  one  chicken  of  the  silver-spangled 
Hamburgh,  and  this  was  obscurely  striped  along  the  back.  Gold- 
spangled  Polish  chickens  (Tegetmeier)  are  of  a warm  russet  brown ; 
and  silver- spangled  Polish  chickens  are  grey,  sometimes  (Dixon) 
with  dashes  of  ochre  on  the  head,  wings,  and  breast.  Cuckoo  and 
blue-dun  fowls  (Dixon)  are  grey  in  the  down.  The  chickens  of 
Sebright  Bantams  (Dixon)  are  uniformly  dark  brown,  whilst  those 
of  the  brown-breasted  red  Game  Bantam  are  black,  with  some  white 
on  the  throat  and  breast.  From  these  facts  we  see  that  young 
chickens  of  the  different  breeds,  and  even  of  the  same  main  breed, 
differ  much  in  their  downy  plumage ; and,  although  longitudinal 
stripes  characterise  the  young  of  all  wild  gallinaceous  birds,  they 
disappear  in  several  domestic  breeds.  Perhaps  it  may  be  accepted 
as  a general  rule  that  the  more  the  adult  plumage  differs  from  that 
of  the  adult  G.  hankiua,  the  more  completely  the  chickens  have 
lost  their  stripes. 

With  respect  to  the  period  of  life  at  which  the  characters 
proper  to  each  breed  first  appear,  it  is  obvious  that  such 
structures  as  additional  toes  must  be  formed  long  before  birth. 
In  Polish  fowls,  the  extraordinary  protuberance  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  skull  is  well  developed  before  the  chickens  come 
out  of  the  egg;^°  but  the  crest,  which  is  supported  on  the 
j^rotuberance,  is  at  first  feebly  developed,  nor  does  it  attain 

As  I hear  from  Mr.  Tegetmeier ; crest,  see  ‘Poultry  Chronicle,’  vcL 
see  also  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.’  1356,  p.  ii.  p.  132. 

366.  On  the  late  development  of  the 


Chap.  VII. 


SEXUAL  DIFFERENCES. 


263 


its  full  size  until  the  second  j^ear.  The  Spanish  cock  is  pre- 
eminent for  his  magnificent  comb,  and  this  is  developed  at 
an  unusually  early  age;  so  that  the  young  males  can  be 
distinguished  from  the  females  'when  only  a few  weeks  old, 
and  therefore  earlier  than  in  other  breeds  ; they  likewise 
crow  very  early,  namely,  when  about  six  weeks  old.  In  the 
Dutch  sub-breed  of  tlie  Spanish  fowl  the  white  ear-la]:  pets 
are  developed  earlier  than  in  the  common  Spanish  breed. 
Cochins  are  characterised  by  a small  tail,  and  in  the  young 
cocks  the  tail  is  developed  at  an  unusually  late  period.^^ 
Game  fowls  are  notorious  for  their  pugnacity ; and  the  young 
cocks  crow,  clap  their  little  wings,  and  fight  obstinately  with 
each  other,  even  whilst  under  their  mother’s  care.'^^  “ I have 
often  had,”  says  one  author, “ whole  broods,  scarcely 
feathered  stone  blind  from  fighting ; the  rival  couples  moping 
in  corners,  and  renewing  their  battles  on  obtaining  the  first 
ray  of  light.  ’ The  weapons  and  pugnacity  of  all  male  gallina- 
ceous birds  evidently  serve  the  purpose  of  gaining  possession  of 
the  females ; so  that  the  tendency  in  our  Game  chickens  to  fight 
at  an  extremely  early  age  is  not  only  useless,  but  injurious, 
as  they  suffer  much  from  their  wounds.  The  training  for 
battle  during  an  early  age  may  be  natural  to  the  wild  Gallus 
hankiva;  but  as  man  during  many  generations  has  gone  on 
selecting  the  most  obstinately  pugnacious  cocks,  it  is  more 
probable  that  their  pugnacity  has  been  unnaturally  increased, 
and  unnaturally  transferred  to  the  young  male  chickens.  In 
the  same  manner,  it  is  probable  that  the  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  the  comb  in  the  Spanish  cock  has  been  un- 
intentionally transferred  to  the  young  cocks;  for  fancieis 
would  not  care  whether  their  young  birds  had  large  combs, 
but  would  select  for  breeding  the  adults  which  had  the  finest 
combs,  whether  or  not  developed  at  an  early  period.  The 
last  point  which  need  here  be  noticed  is  that,  though  the 
chickens  of  Spanish  and  Malay  fowls  are  well  covered  with 
down,  the  true  feathers  are  acquired  at  an  unusually  late  age; 

On  these  points,  see  ‘Poultry  tic  Poultry,’ p.  273, 

Chronicle,’ vol.  iii.  p.  166  ; and  Teget-  Ferguson  on  Rare  and  Prize 

meier’s  ‘ Poultry  Book,’  1866,  pp.  105  Poultry,  p.  261. 

and  121.  **  Mowbray  on  Poultry,  7th  edit. 

Dixon,  ‘Ornamental  and  Domes-  1834,  p.  13. 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VLI. 


20  [ 


so  that  for  a time  the  young  birds  are  partially  naked,  and 
are  liable  to  suffer  from  cold. 

Secondary  Sexual  Characters. — The  two  sexes  in  the  parent- 
form,  the  Galliis  hanhiva,  differs  much  in  colour.  In  our 
domestic  breeds  the  difference  is  never  greater-,  but  is  often 
less,  and  varies  much  in  degree  even  in  the  sub- breeds  of  the 
same  main  breed.  Thus  in  certain  Game  fowls  the  difference 
is  as  great  as  in  the  parent-form,  whilst  in  the  black  and 
white  sub-breeds  there  is  no  difference  in  plumage.  Mr.  Brent 
informs  me  that  he  has  seen  two  strains  of  black-breasted  red 
Games,  of  which  the  cocks  could  not  be  distinguished,  whilst 
the  hens  in  one  were  partridge-brown  and  in  the  other  fawn- 
Ijrown.  A similar  case  has  been  observed  in  the  strains  of 
the  brown-breasted  red  Game.  The  hen  of  the  duck-winged 
Game”  is  -‘extremely  beautiful,”  and  differs  much  from  the 
liens  of  all  the  other  Game  sub-breeds  ; but  generally,  as  with 
the  blue  and  grey  Game  and  with  some  sub-varieties  of  the 
pile  game,  a moderately  close  relation  may  be  observed 
between  the  males  and  females  in  the  variation  of  their 
plumage.^^  A similar  relation  is  also  evident  when  we  com- 
pare the  several  varieties  of  Cochins.  In  the  two  sexes  of 
gold  and  silver-spangled  and  of  buff  Polish  fowls,  there  is 
much  general  similarity  in  the  colouring  and  marks  of  the 
whole  plumage,  excepting  of  course  in  the  hackles,  crest,  and 
beard.  In  spangled  Hamburghs,  there  is  likewise  a con- 
siderable degree  of  similarity  between  the  two  sexes.  In 
pencilled  Hamburghs,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  dis- 
similarity ; the  pencilling  which  is  characteristic  of  the  hens 
being  almost  absent  in  the  males  of  both  the  golden  and 
silver  varieties.  But,  as  we  have  already  seen,  it  cannot  be 
given  as  a general  rule  that  male  fowls  never  have  pencilled 
feathers,  for  Cuckoo  Dorkings  are  “remarkable  from  having 
nearly  similar  markings  in  both  sexes.” 

It  is  a singular  fact  that  the  males  in  certain  sub  breeds 
have  lost  some  of  their  secondary  masculine  characters,  and 
from  their  close  resemblage  in  plumage  to  the  females,  ai-e 
often  called  hennies.  There  is  much  diversity  of  o])inion 
whether  these  males  are  in  any  degree  sterile  ; that  they  some- 

See  the  full  description  of  the  meier’s  ‘ Poultry  Book,’  1866,  p 131. 
varieties  of  the  Game-breed,  in  Teq;et-  For  Cuckoo  Doi-kin<js,  p.  97. 


CnAr.  VII. 


SEXUAL  DIFFERENCES. 


265 


times  are  partially  sterile  seems  clear, but  this  may  have 
been  caused  by  too  close  interbreeding.  That  they  are  not 
quite  sterile,  and  that  the  whole  case  is  widely  dilferent  from 
that  of  old  females  assuming  masculine  characters,  is  evident 
from  several  of  these  hen-like  sub-breeds  having  been  long 
propagated.  The  males  and  females  of  gold  and  silver-laced 
Sebright  Bantams  can  be  barely  distinguished  from  each 
other,  except  by  their  combs,  wattles,  and  spurs,  for  they  are 
coloured  alike,  and  the  males  have  not  hackles,  nor  the 
flowing  sickle-like  tail-feathers.  A hen-tailed  sub-breed  of 
Hamburghs  was  recently  much  esteemed.  There  is  also  a 
breed  of  Game-fowls,  in  which  the  males  and  females  resemble 
each  other  so  closely  that  the  cocks  have  often  mistaken  their 
hen- feathered  opponents  in  the  cock- pit  for  real  hens,  and  by 
the  mistake  have  lost  their  lives.^^  The  cocks,  though 
dressed  in  the  feathers  of  the  hen,  “ are  high-spirited  birds, 
and  their  courage  has  been  often  proved  : ” an  engraving 
even  has  been  published  of  one  celebrated  hen-tailed  victor. 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  recorded  the  remarkable  case  of  a 
brown-breasted  red  Game  cock  which,  after  assuming  its 
perfect  masculine  plumage,  became  hen-feathered  in  the 
autumn  of  the  following  year;  but  he  did  not  lose  voice, 
spurs,  strength,  nor  productiveness.  This  bird  has  now 
retained  the  same  character  during  five  seasons,  and  has 
begot  both  hen-feathered  and  male-feathered  offspring.  Mr. 
Grantley  F.  Berkeley  relates  the  still  more  singular  case  of  a 
celebrated  strain  of  “ polecat  Game  fowls,”  which  produced  in 
nearly  every  brood  a single  hen-cock.  “ The  great  peculiarity 
in  one  of  these  birds  was  that  he,  as  the  seasons  succeeded 
each  other,  was  not  always  a hen-cock,  and  not  always  of  the 
colour  called  the  polecat,  which  is  black.  From  the  polecat 
and  hen-cock  feather  in  one  season  he  moulted  to  a full  malo- 
plumaged  black-breasted  red,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
returned  to  the  former  feather.” 

Mr.  Hewitt  la  Tegetmeier’s  a-dozen  cocks  thus  sacrificed. 

‘ Poultry  Book,’  1866,  pp.  246  and  ■‘®  ‘ Proceedings  of  Zoolog.  Soc.’ 
156.  For  hen-tailed  game-cocks,  se&  March,  1861,  p.  1U2.  The  engraving 
p.  131.  of  the  hen-tailed  cock  just  alluded  to 

‘The  Field,’  April  20th,  1861.  was  exhibited  before  the  Society. 

The  writer  says  he  has  seen  half-  ‘ The  Field,’ April  20th,  1861. 


266 


FOWLS. 


Chap  VII, 


I haAe  remarked  in  my  ‘ Origin  of  Species’  that  secondary 
sexual  characters  are  apt  to  differ  much  in  the  species  of  the 
same  genus,  and  to  be  unusually  variable  in  the  individuals 
of  the  same  species.  So  it  is  with  the  breeds  of  the  fowl,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  as  far  as  the  colour  of  plumage  is  con- 
cerned, and  so  it  is  with  the  other  secondary  sexual  charactei's. 
Firstly,  the  comb  differs  much  in  the  various  breeds, and  its 
form  is  eminently  characteristic  of  each  kind,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Dorkings,  in  which  the  form  has  not  been  as 
yet  determined  on  by  fanciers,  and  fixed  by  selection.  A single, 
deeply- serrated  comb  is  the  typical  and  most  common  form. 
It  differs  much  in  size,  being  immensely  developed  in  Spanish 
fowls ; and  in  a local  breed  called  Ked-caps,  it  is  sometimes 
“ upwards  of  three  inches  in  breadth  at  the  front,  and  more 
than  four  inches  in  length,  measured  to  the  end  of  the  peak 
behind.”  In  some  breeds  the  comb  is  d(mble,  and  when  the 
two  ends  are  cemented  together  it  forms  a “ cup-comb ; ” in 
the  “rose  comb”  it  is  depressed,  covered  with  small  pro- 
jections, and  produced  backwards ; in  the  horned  and  creve- 
cxur  fowl  it  is  produced  into  two  horns ; it  is  triple  in  the 
pea-combed  Brahmas,  short  and  truncated  in  the  Malays, 
and  absent  in  the  Guelderlands.  In  the  tasselled  Game  a few 
long  feathers  rise  from  the  back  of  the  comb  : in  many  breeds 
a crest  of  feathers  replaces  the  comb.  The  crest,  when  little 
develoj)ed,  arises  from  a fleshy  mass,  but,  when  much  deve- 
loped, from  a hemispherical  protuberance  of  the  skull.  In 
the  best  Polish  fowls  it  is  so  largely  developed,  that  I have 
seen  birds  which  could  hardly  pick  up  their  food ; and  a 
German  writer  asserts  that  they  are  in  consequence  liable 
to  be  struck  by  hawks.  Monstrous  structures  of  this  kind 
would  thus  be  suppressed  in  a state  of  nature.  The  wattles, 
also,  vary  much  in  size,  being  small  in  Malays  and  some 
other  breeds  ; in  certain  Polish  sub-breeds  they  are  replaced 
by  a great  tuft  of  feathers  called  a beard. 

The  hackles  do  not  differ  much  in  the  various  breeds,  but 


1 am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Brent 
for  an  account,  with  sketches,  of  all 
the  variations  of  the  comb  known  to 
nim,  and  likewise  with  respect  to  the 
tail  as  presently  to  be  given. 


The  ‘ Poultry  Book,’  by  Teget- 
meior,  1866,  p.  234, 

‘ Die  Hiihner-  und  Pfaueuzuoht, 
1827,  s.  11. 


CiiAi‘.  Yll. 


SEXUAL  DIFFEKENCES. 


267 


are-ssiliort  and  stiff  in  Malays,  and  absent  in  Hennies.  As  in 
some  orders  male  birds  display  extraordinarily- shaped  feathers, 
such  as  naked  shafts  with  discs  at  the  end,  &c.,  the  following 
case  may  be  worth  giving.  In  the  wild  Gallus  bankiva  and  in 
onr  domestic  fowls,  the  barbs  which  arise  from  each  side  of 
the  extremities  of  the  hackles  are  naked  or  not  clothed  with 
barbules,  so  that  they  resemble  bristles  ; bnt  Mr.  Brent  sent 
me  some  scapular  hackles  from  a young  Birchen  Duckwing 
Game  cock,  in  which  the  naked  barbs  became  densely  re- 
clothed with  barbules  towards  their  tips ; so  that  these  tips, 
which  were  dark  coloured  with  a metallic  lustre,  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  lower  parts  by  a symmetrically- shaped  trans- 
parent zone  formed  of  the  naked  portions  of  the  barbs.  Hence 
the  coloured  tips  appeared  like  little  separate  metallic  discs. 

The  sickle-feathers  in  the  tail,  of  which  there  are  three 
j)air,  and  which  are  eminently  characteristic  of  the  male  sex, 
differ  much  in  the  various  breeds.  They  are  scimitar-shaped 
in  some  Hamburghs,  instead  of  being  long  and  flowing  as  in 
the  typical  breeds,  d'hey  are  extremely  short  in  Cochins, 
and  are  not  at  all  developed  in  Hennies.  They  are  carried, 
together  with  the  whole  tail,  erect  in  Dorkings  and  Games ; 
but  droop  much  in  Mahays  and  in  some  Cochins.  Sultans  are 
characterised  by  an  additional  number  of  lateral  sickle - 
feathers.  The  spurs  vary  much,  being  placed  higher  or  loxrer 
on  the  shank ; being  extremely  long  and  sharp  in  Games,  and 
blunt  and  short  in  Cochins.  These  latter  birds  seem  aware 
that  their  spurs  are  not  efficient  weapons ; for  though  they 
occasionally  use  them,  they  more  frequently  fight,  as  I am 
informed  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  by  seizing  and  shaking  each 
other  with  their  beaks  In  .some  Indian  Game  cocks,  received 
by  Mr.  Brent  from  Germany,  there  are,  as  he  informs  me, 
three,  four,  or  even  five  spurs  on  each  leg.  Some  Dorkings 
also  have  two  spurs  on  each  leg ; and  in  birds  of  this  breed 
the  spur  is  often  placed  almost  on  the  outside  of  the  leg. 
Double  spurs  are  mentioned  in  an  ancient  Chinese  Ency- 
clopaedia. Their  occurrence  may  be  considered  as  a case  of 

‘Poultry  Chronicle,’  vol.  l.  p.  position  of  the  spurs  in  Dorkings, 
t>9b.  Mr.  Brent  has  informed  me  of  ‘Cottage  Gardener,’  Sept.  18th,  18G0, 
the  same  lact.  With  respect  to  the  p.  380. 


268 


FOWIiS. 


Chap.  VII. 


analogous  variation,  for  some  ’wild  gallinaceous  birds,  for 
instance,  the  Polyplectron,  have  double  spurs. 

Judging  from  the  differences  which  generally  distinguish 
the  sexes  in  the  Gallinacese,  certain  characters  in  our  domestic 
fowls  appear  to  have  been  transferred  from  the  one  sex  to  the 
other.  In  all  the  species  (except  in  Turnix),  when  there  is 
any  conspicuous  difference  in  plumage  betw’een  the  male  and 
female,  the  male  is  always  the  most  beautiful ; but  in  golden- 
span  gled  Hamburghs  the  hen  is  equally  beautiful  with  the 
cock,  and  incomparably  more  beautiful  than  the  hen  in  any 
natural  species  of  G alius ; so  that  here  a masculine  character 
has  been  transferred  to  the  female.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
Cuckoo  Dorkings  and  in  other  cuckoo  breeds  the  pencilling, 
which  in  Gallus  is  a female  attribute,  has  been  transferred 
to  the  male  : nor,  on  the  principle  of  analogous  variation,  is 
this  transference  surprising,  as  the  males  in  many  gallinaceous 
genera  are  barred  or  pencilled.  With  most  of  these  birds 
head  ornaments  of  all  kinds  are  more  fully  developed  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female;  but  in  Polish  fowls  the  crest  or 
top  knot,  which  in  the  male  replaces  the  comb,  is  equally 
developed  in  both  sexes.  In  the  males  of  certain  other  sub- 
breeds, which  from  the  hen  having  a small  crest,  are  called 
lark-crested,  “ a single  upright  comb  sometimes  almost  en- 
tirely takes  the  place  of  the  crest.”  From  this  latter  case, 
and  more  especially  from  some  facts  presently  to  be  given 
with  respect  to  the  protuberance  of  the  skull  in  Polish 
fowls,  the  crest  in  this  breed  must  be  viewed  as  a feminine 
character  which  has  been  transferred  to  the  male.  In  the 
Spanish  breed  the  male,  as  we  know,  has  an  immense  comb, 
and  this  has  been  partially  transferred  to  the  female,  for  her 
comb  is  unusually  large,  though  not  upright.  In  Game 
fowls  the  bold  and  savage  disposition  of  the  male  has  like- 
wise been  largely  transferred  to  the  female ; and  she  some- 
times even  possesses  the  eminently  masculine  character  of 
spurs.  Many  cases  are  on  record  of  fertile  hens  being  furnished 


Dixon,  ‘ Ornamental  and  Domes-  batire,  that  it  is  now  _o-enerally  the 
Poultry,’  p.  320,  practice  to  exhibit  each  hen  iu  a 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  separate  pen. 

Game  hens  have  been  found  so  com- 


CiiAr.  TII. 


EXTERNAL  DIFFERENCES. 


269 


with  spurs;  and  in  Germany,  according  to  Bechstein,^*^  the 
spurs  in  the  Silk  hen  are  sometimes  very  long.  He  mentions 
also  another  breed  similarly  characterised,  in  which  the  hens 
are  excellent  layers,  but  are  apt  to  disturb  and  break  their 
eggs  owing  to  their  spurs. 

Mr.  Layard^"^  has  given  an  account  of  a breed  of  fowls  in 
Ceylon  with  black  skin,  bones,  and  wattle,  but  with  ordinary 
feathers,  and  which  cannot  “ be  more  aptly  described  than''by 
comparing  them  to  a white  fowl  drawn  down  a sooty  chimney  ; 
it  is,  however,”  adds  Mr.  Layard,  “ a remarkable  fact  that  a 
male  bird  of  the  pure  sooty  variety  is  almost  as  rare  as  a 
tortoise-shell  tom-cat.”  Mr.  Blyth  found  the  same  rule  to 
hold  good  with  this  breed  near  Calcutta.  The  males  and 
females,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  black-boned  European 
breed,  with  silky  feathers,  do  not  differ  from  each  other ; so 
that  in  the  one  breed,  black  skin  and  bones  aud  the  same 
kind  of  plumage  are  common  to  both  sexes,  whilst  in  the  other 
breed,  these  characters  are  confined  to  the  female  sex. 

At  the  present  day  all  the  breeds  of  Polish  fowls  have  the 
great  bony  protuberance  on  their  skulls,  which  includes  part 
of  the  brain  and  supports  the  crest,  equally  developed  in  both 
sexes.  But  formerly  in  Germany  the  skull  of  the  hen  alone 
was  protuberant:  Blumenbaoh,^®  who  particularly  attended 
to  abnormal  peculiarities  in  domestic  animals,  states,  in  1805, 
that  this  was  the  case ; and  Bechstein  had  previously,  in 
1793,  observed  the  same  fact.  This  latter  author  has  care- 
fully described  the  effects  on  the  skull  of  a crest  not  only  in 
the  case  of  fowls,  but  of  ducks,  geese,  and  canaries.  He  states 
that  with  fowls,  when  the  crest  is  not  much  developed,  it  is 
supported  on  a fatty  mass ; b^t  when  much  developed,  it  is 
always  supported  on  a bony  protuberance  of  variable  size. 


‘ Naturge.schichte  Deutschlauds,’ 
Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  339,  407. 

On  the  Ornitholog}’-  of  Ceylon  in 
‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  History.’ 
2nd  series,  vol.  xiv.  (1 854),  p.  63. 

‘ Ilandbuch  der  vergleich.  Ana- 
toinie,’  1805,  p.  85,  note.  Mr.  Teget- 
ineier,  who  gives  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog. 
Soc.,’  Nov.  25th,  1856,  a very  interest- 
ing account  of  the  skulls  of  Polish 
fowls,  not  knowing  of  Bechstein’s  ac- 


count, has  disputed  the  accuracy  of 
Blumenbach’s  statement.  For  Bech- 
stein, sec  ‘ Naturgeschichte  Deutsch- 
lands,’  Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  399,  note.  I 
may  add  that  at  the  first  exhibition  of 
Poultry  at  the  Zoological  Gardens,  in 
May,  1845,  I saw  some  fowls,  called 
Priezland  fowls,  of  which  the  hens 
were  crested,  and  the  cocks  furnished 
with  a comb. 


270 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


Ho  well  describes  the  peculiarities  of  this  protuhci-ance ; ho 
attended  also  to  the  effects  of  the  modified  sliapc  of  the  brain 
on  the  intellect  of  these  birds,  and  disputes  I’allas’  statement 
that  they  are  stupid.  He  then  expressly  remarks  that  he 
never  observed  this  protuberance  in  male  fowls.  Hence  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  extraordinary  character  in  the  skulhi 
of  Polish  fowls  was  formerly  in  Germany  confined  to  the 
female  sex,  but  has  now  been  transferred  to  the  males,  and 
has  thus  become  common  to  both  sexes. 

External  Differences,  not  connected  with  the  Sexes,  between  the 
Breeds  and  between  individual  Birds. 

The  size  of  the  body  differs  greatly.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  known 
a Brahma  to  weigh  17  pounds;  a fine  Malay  cock  10 pounds;  whilst 
a first-rate  Sebright  Bantam  weighs  hardly  more  than  1 pound. 
During  the  last  20  years  the  size  of  some  of  our  breeds  has  been 
largely  increased  by  methodical  selection,  whilst  that  of  other  breeds 
has  been  much  diminished.  We  have  already  seen  how  greatly 
colour  varies  even  within  the  same  breed;  we  know  that  the  wild 
G.  hankiva  varies  slightly  in  colour ; we  know  that  colour  is  variable 
in  all  our  domestic  animals ; nevertheless  some  eminent  fanciers 
have  so  little  faith  in  variability,  that  they  have  actually  argued 
that  the  chief  Game  sub-breeds,  which  differ  from  ench  other  in 
nothing  but  colour,  are  descended  from  distinct  wild  species! 
Crossing  often  causes  strange  modification  of  colour.  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
informs  me  that  when  buff  and  white  Cochins  are  crossed,  some  of 
the  chickens  are  almost  invariably  black.  According  to  Mr.  Brent, 
black  and  white  Cochins  occasionally  produce  chickens  of  a slaty- 
blue  tint ; and  this  same  tint  results,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  tells  me, 
from  crossing  white  Cochins  with  black  Spanish  fowls,  or  white 
Dorkings  with  black  Minorcas.®^  A good  observer*^®  states  that  a 
first-rate  silver- spangled  Hamburgh  hen  gradually  lost  the  most 
characteristic  qualities  of  the  breed,  for  the  black  lacing  to  her 
feathers  disappeared,  and  her  legs  changed  from  leaden-blue  to  white : 
but  what  makes  the  case  remarkable  is,  that  this  tendency  ran  in  the 
blood  for  her  sister  changed  in  a similar  but  less  strongly  marked 
manner ; and  chickens  produced  from  this  latter  hen  were  at  first 
almost  pure  white,  “but  on  moulting  acquired  black  colours  and 
some  spangled  feathers  with  almost  obliterated  markings so  that 
a new  variety  arose  in  this  singular  manner.  The  skin  in  the 
different  breeds  differs  much  in  colour,  being  white  in  common  kinds, 
yellow  in  Malays  and  Cochins,  and  black  in  Silk  fowls ; thus  mocking, 


‘Cottage  Gardener,’  Jan.  3rd,  before  the  Dublin  Nat..  Hist.  Soc., 
I860,  p.  218.  quoted  in  ‘Cottage  Gardener,’  1856, 

Mr.  Williams,  in  a paper  read  p.  161. 


CUAP.  VII. 


EXTEEN AL  DIFFEEENCES. 


271 


as  M.  Godron  remarks  the  three  principal  types  of  skin  in  man- 
kind. The  same  author  adds  that,  as  different  kinds  of  fowls  living 
in  distant  and  isolated  parts  of  the  world  have  black  skin  and  bones, 
this  colour  must  have  appeared  at  various  times  and  places. 

The  shape  and  carriage  of  the  body,  and  the  shape  of  the  head 
differ  much.  The  beak  varies  slightly  in  leugth  and  curvature,  but 
incomparably  less  than  with  pigeons.  In  most  crested  fowds  the 
nostrils  offer  a remarkable  peculiarity  in  being  raised  with  a cres- 
centic outline.  The  primary  wing-feathers  are  short  in  Cochins ; in 
a male,  which  must  have  been  more  than  twice  as  heavy  a&  G. 
oankiva,  these  feathers  were  in  both  birds  of  the  same  length.  I 
have  counted,  with  Mr.  Tegetmeier’s  aid,  the  primary  wing-feathers 
in  thirteen  cocks  and  hens  of  various  breeds ; in  four  of  them, 
namely  in  two  Hamburghs,  a Cochin,  and  Game  bantam,  there  v/ere 
10,  instead  of  the  normal  number  9 ; but  in  counting  these  feathers 
I have  followed  the  practice  of  fanciers,  and  have  not  included  the 
first  minute  primary  feather,  barely  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length.  These  feathers  differ  considerably  in  relative  length,  the 
fourth,  or  the  fifth,  or  the  sixth,  being  the  longest ; with  the  third 
either  equal  to,  or  considerably  shorter  than  the  fifth.  In  wild 
gallinaceous  species  the  relative  length  and  number  of  the  main 
wing  and  tail-feathers  are  extremely  constant. 

The  tail  differs  much  in  eroctness  and  size,  being  small  in  Malays 
and  very  small  in  Cochins.  In  thirteen  fowls  of  various  breeds 
which  I have  examined,  five  had  the  normal  number  of  14  feathers, 
including  in  this  number  the  two  middle  sickle-feathers;  six  others 
(viz.  a Caffre  cock,  Gold-spangled  Polish  cock,  Cochin  hen,  Sultan 
hen.  Game  hen  and  Malay  hen  had  16  ; and  two  (an  old  Cochin 
cock  and  Malay  hen)  had  17  feathers.  The  rumpless  fowl  has  no  tail 
and  in  one  which  I possessed  there  was  no  oil-gland ; but  this 
bird  though  the  os  coccygis  was  extremely  imperfect,  had  a vestige 
of  a tail  with  two  rather  long  feathers  in  the  position  of  the  outer 
caudals.  This  bird  came  from  a family  where,  as  I was  told,  the 
breed  had  kept  true  for  twenty  years ; but  rumpless  fowls  often 
produce  chickens  with  tails.*^^  An  eminent  physiologist®^  has 
recently  spoken  of  this  breed  as  a distinct  species  ; had  he  examined 
the  deformed  state  of  the  os  coccyx  he  would  never  have  come  to 
this  conclusion  ; he  was  probably  misled  by  the  statement,  which  may 
be  found  in  some  works,  that  tailless  fowls  are  wild  in  Ceylon ; but 
this  statement,  as  I have  been  assured  by  Mr.  Layard  and  Dr.  Kellaert 
who  have  so  closely  studied  the  birds  of  Ceylon,  is  utterly  false. 

The  tarsi  vary  considerably  in  length,  being  relatively  to  the 


‘ De  I’Espfece,’  1 859,  p.  442. 
For  the  occurrence  of  black-boned 
fowls  in  South  America,  see  Roulin, 
In  ‘Mem.  de  I’Acad.  des  Sciences,’ 
t'<rc.  vi.  p.  351  ; and  Azara,  ‘ Quad- 
rupedes  du  Paraguay,’  tom.  ii.  p.  324. 


A frizzled  fowl  sent  to  me  from 
Madras  had  black  bones. 

Mr.  Hewitt,  in  Tegetmeier’s 
‘Poultry  Book,’  1866,  p.  231. 

Dr.  Broca,  in  Brown-Sequard’s 
‘Journal  de  Phys.,’  tom.  ii.  p.  361. 


272 


FOWLS, 


CiiAr.  Vll. 


femur  considerably  longer  in  the  Spanish  and  Frizzled,  and  shorter 
in  the  Silk  and  Bantam  breeds,  than  in  the  wild  G.  hankiva  ; but  in 
the  latter,  as  we  have  seen,  the  tarsi  vary  in  length.  The  tarsi  are 
often  feathered.  The  feet  in  many  breeds  are  furnished  with 
additional  toes.  Golden-spangled  Polish  fowls  are  said  to  have 
t!ie  skin  between  tlieir  toes  much  developed:  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
observed  this  in  one  bird,  but  it  was  not  so  in  one  which  I examined. 
Prof.  Hoffmann  has  sent  me  a sketch  of  the  feet  of  a fowl  of  the 
common  breed  at  Giessen,  with  a web  extending  between  the  three 
toes,,  for  about  a third  of  their  length.  In  Cochins  the  middle  toe  is 
said  to  be  nearly  double  the  length  of  the  lateral  toes,  and  there- 
fore much  longer  than  in  G.  hanhiva  or  in  other  fowls ; but  this  was 
not  the  case  in  two  which  I examined.  The  nail  of  the  middle  toe 
in  this  same  breed  is  surprisingly  broad  and  flat,  but  in  a variable 
degree  in  two  birds  which  I examined ; of  this  structure  in  the  nail 
there  is  only  a trace  in  G.  hankiva. 

The  voice  differs  slightly,  as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Dixon,  in 
almost  every  breed.  The  Malays  have  a loud,  deep,  somewhat  pro- 
longed crow,  but  with  considerable  individual  difference.  Colonel 
Sykes  remarks  that  the  domestic  Kulm  cock  in  India  has  not  the 
shrill  clear  pipe  of  the  English  bird,  and  “ his  scale  of  notes  appears 
more  limited.”  Dr.  Hooker  was  struck  with  the  “ prolonged  howling 
screech”  of  the  cocks  in  Sikhim.®^  The  crow  of  the  Cochin  is  iioto- 
riously  and  ludicrously  different  from  that  of  the  common  cock. 
The  disposition  of  the  different  breeds  is  widely  different,  varying 
from  the  savage  and  defiant  temper  of  the  Game-cock  to  the 
extremely  peaceable  temper  of  the  Cochins.  The  latter,  it  has  been 
asserted,  ‘‘  graze  to  a much  greater  extent  than  any  other  varieties.’* 
The  Spanish  fowls  suffer  more  from  frost  than  other  breeds. 

Before  we  pass  on  to  the  skeleton,  the  degree  of  distinctness 
of  the  several  breeds  from  G.  hanhiva  ought  to  be  noticed. 
Some  writers  speak  of  the  Spanish  as  one  of  the  most  distinct 
breeds,  and  so  it  is  in  general  aspect ; but  its  characteristic 
differences  are  not  important.  The  Malay  appears  to  me  more 
distinct,  from  its  tall  stature,  small  drooping  tail  with  more 
than  fourteen  tail-feathers,  and  from  its  small  comb  and 
w attles ; nevertheless,  one  Malay  sub-breed  is  coloured  almost 
exactly  like  G.  hanhiva.  Some  authors  consider  the  Polish 
fowl  as  very  distinct ; but  this  a semi-monstrous  breed,  as 
shoMz-n  by  the  protuberant  and  irregularly  perforated  skull. 


Dixon’s  ‘ Ornameiital  Poultry,’ 
p.  325. 

‘Poultry  Chronicle,’  vol.  i.  p. 
485.  Tegetmeier’s  ‘ Poultry  Book,’ 
1866,  p.  41.  On  Cochins  grazing, 
ibid.,  p.  46. 


ofi  Ferguson  on  ‘ Prize  Poultry,’  p. 
87. 

Col.  Sykes  in  ‘Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc., 
1832,  p.  151.  Dr.  Hooker’s  ‘Hima- 
layan Journals,’  vol.  i.  p.  314. 


Chap.  YII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFEKENCES. 


273 


The  Cochin,  from  its  deeply  furrowed  frontal  bones,  peculiarly 
shaped  occipital  foramen,  short  wing-feathers,  short  tail  con- 
taining more  than  fourteen  feathers,  broad  nail  to  the  middle 
toe,  fluffy  plumage,  rough  and  dark-coloured  eggs,  and  espe- 
cially from  its  peculiar  voice,  is  probably  the  most  distinct  of 
all  the  breeds.  If  any  one  of  our  breeds  has  descended  from 
some  unknown  species,  distinct  from  G.  hankiva,  it  is  probably 
the  Cochin  ; but  the  balance  of  evidence  does  not  favour -this 
view.  All  the  characteristic  differences  of  the  Cochin  breed 
are  more  or  less  variable,  and  may  be  detected  in  a greater  or 
lesser  degree  in  other  breeds.  One  sub-breed  is  coloured 
closely  like  G.  honkiva.  The  feathered  legs,  often  furnished 
with  an  additional  toe,  the  wings  incapable  of  flight,  the 
extremely  quiet  disposition,  indicate  a long  course  of  domes 
tication ; and  these  fowls  come  from  China,  where  we  know 
that  plants  and  animals  have  been  tended  from  a remote 
period  with  extraordinary  care,  and  where  consequently  we 
might  expect  to  find  profoundly  modified  domestic  races. 

Osteological  Differences. — I have  examined  twenty-seven 
skeletons  and  fifty-three  skulls  of  various  breeds,  including 
three  of  G.  hankiva:  nearly  half  of  these  skulls  I owe  to  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  Tegetrneier,  and  three  of  the  skeletons  to 
Mr.  Eyton. 


The  Skull  differs  greatly  in  size  in  different  breeds,  being  nearly 
twice  as  long  in  the  largest  Cochins,  but  not  nearly  twice  as  broad, 
as  in  Bantams.  The  bones  at  the  base,  from  the  occipital  foramen 
to  the  anterior  end  (including  the  guadrates  and  pterygoids),  are 
absolutely  identical  in  shape  in  all  the  skulls.  So  is  the  lower  jaw. 
In  the  forehead  slight  differences  are  often  jjerceptible  between  the 
males  and  females,  evidently  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  comb. 
In  every  case  I take  the  skull  of  G.  hankiva  as  the  standard  of 
comparison.  In  four  Games,  in  one  Malay  hen,  in  an  African  cock, 
in  a Frizzled  cock  from  Madras,  in  two  black-boned  Silk  hens,  no 
differences  worth  notice  occur.  In  three  Spanish  cocks,  the  form 
of  the  forehead  between  the  orbits  differs  considerably ; in  one  it  is 
considerably  depressed,  whilst  in  the  two  others  it  is  rather  promi- 
nent, with  a deep  medial  furrow ; the  skull  of  the  hen  is  smooth. 
In  three  skulls  of  Sebright  Bantams  the  crown  is  more  globular,  and 
slopes  more  abruptly  to  the  occiput,  than  in  O.  hankiva.  In  a 
Bantam  or  Jumper  from  Burmah  these  same  characters  are  more 
strongly  pronounced,  and  the  supra-occiput  is  more  pointed.  In 
a black  Bantam  the  skull  is  not  so  globular,  and  the  occipibil 
19 


274 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


foraipcu  is  very  large,  and  has  nearly  the  same  snb-triangnlar  out- 
line presently  to  be  described  in  Cochins;  and  in  this  skull  the 
two  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  are  overlapped  in  a 
singular  manner  by  the  processes  of  the  nasal  bone,  but,  as  I have 
seen  only  one  specimen,  some  of  these  differences  may  be  individual. 
Of  Cochins  and  Brahmas  (the  latter  a crossed  race  approaching 
closely  to  Cochins)  1 have  examined  seven  skulls;  at  the  point 
where  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  rest  on  the  frontal 
bone  the  surface  is  much  depressed,  and  from  this  de]n‘ession  a deep 
medial  furrow  extends  backwards  to  a variable  distance;  the  edges 
of  this  fissure  are  rather  prominent,  as  is  the  top  of  the  skull  behind 
and  over  the  orbits.  These  characters  are  less  developed  in  the 
hens.  The  pterygoids,  and  the  processes  of  the  lower  jaw,  are 
broader,  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  head,  than  in  O.  hanhiva ; and 
this  is  likewise  the  case  with  Dorkings  when  of  large  size.  The 
fork  of  the  hyoid  bone  in  Cochins  is  twice  as  wide  as  in  G.  hanldm, 
whereas  the  length  of  the  other  hyoid  bones  is  only  as  three  to 


two.  But  the  most  remarkable  character  is  the  shape  of  the 
occipital  foramen : in  G.  hankiva  (A)  the  breadth  in  a horizontal 
line  exceeds  the  height  in  a vertical  line,  and  the  outline  is  nearly 
circular ; whereas  in  Cochins  (B)  the  outline  is  sub-triangular,  and 
the  vertical  line  exceeds  the  horizontal  line  in  length.  This  same 
form  likewise  occurs  in  the  black  Bantam  above  referred  to,  and  an 
approach  to  it  may  be  seen  in  some  Dorkings,  and  in  a slight  degree 
in  certain  other  breeds. 

Of  Dorkings  I have  examined  three  skulls,  one  belonging  to  the 
white-sub  breed ; the  one  character  deserving  notice  is  the  breadth 
of  the  frontal  bones,  which  are  moderately  furrowed  in  the  middle  ; 
thus  in  a skull  which  was  less  than  once  and  a half  the  length  of 
that  of  G.  hankiva,  the  breadth  between  the  orbits  was  exactly 
double.  Of  Hamhurqlis  I have  examined  four  skulls  (male  and 
female)  of  the  pencilled  sub-breed,  and  one  (male)  of  the  spangled  sub- 
breed; the  nasal  bones  stand  remarkably  wide  apart,  but  in  a 
variable  degree;  consequently  narrow  membrane-covered  spaces 
are  left  between  the  tips  of  the  two  ascending  branches  of  the  pre- 
maxillary bones,  which  are  rather  short,  and  betw^een  these  branches 
and  the  nasal  bones.  The  surface  of  the  frontal  bone,  on  which  the 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


275 


branches  of  the  premaxillary  rest,  is  Ycry  little  depressed.  These 
peculiarities  no  doubt  stand  in  close  relation  with  the  broad,  flattened 
rose-comb  characteristic  of  the  Hamburgh  breed. 

I have  examined  fourteen  skulls  of  I'oUsh  and  other  created  breeds. 
Their  differences  are  extraordinary.  First  for  nine  skulls  of  dif- 
ferent sub-breeds  of  English  Polish  fowls.  The  hemispherical  pro- 
tuberance of  the  frontal  bones  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying 


A 


F’g.  31.- Skulls  of  natural  size,  viewed  from  above,  a little  obliquely.  A.  Wild  Gallus 
bankica.  B.  White  created  PoliahCock. 

drawings,  in  which  (B)  the  skull  of  a white-crested  Polish  fowl  is 
shown  obliquely  from  above,  with  the  skull  (A)  of  6r.  hankiva  in  the 
same  position.  In  fig.  35  longitudinal  sections  are  given  of  the 
skull  of  a Polish  fowl,  and,  for  comparison,  of  a Cochin  of  the  same 
size.  The  protuberance  in  all  Polish  fowls  occupies  the  same  pc  sition 
but  differs  much  in  size.  In  one  of  my  nine  specimens  it  was  ex- 
tremely slight.  The  degree  to  which  the  protuberance  is  ossified 
varies  greatly,  larger  or  smaller  portions  of  bone  being  replaced  by 
membrane.  In  one  specimen  there  was  only  a single  open  pore  ; 


See  Mr.  Tegetmeier’s  account, 
with  woodcuts,  of  the  skull  of  Polish 
fowls,  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  Nov. 
2r)th,  1856.  For  other  references,  see 
Is’d.  Geoffroy  Saint- Hilaire,  ‘Hist. 
Gen.  des  Anomalies,’  tom.  i.  p,  287, 


M.  C.  Dareste  suspects  (‘Recherche? 
sur  les  Conditions  de  la  Vie,’  &c., 
Lille,  1863,  p.  36)  that  the  protuber- 
ance is  not  formed  by  the  frontal 
bones,  but  by  the  ossification  of  the 
dura  mater. 


27(3 


FOWLS. 


Chai*.  mi 


generally,  there  are  many  variously  shaped  open  spaces,  the  bone 
forming  an  irregular  reticulation.  A medial,  longitudinal,  arched 
ribbon  of  bone  is  generally  retained,  but  in  one  specimen  there  was 
no  bone  whatever  over  the  whole  protuberance,  and  the  skull,  when 
cleaned  and  viewed  from  above,  presented  the  appearance  of  an  open 
basin.  The  change  in  the  whole  internal  form  of  the  skull  is  sur- 
prisingly great.  The  brain  is  modified  in  a corresponding  manner, 
as  is  shown  in  the  two  longitudinal  sections,  which  deserve  attentive 
consideration.  The  upper  and  anterior  cavity  of  the  three  into 
which  the  skull  may  be  divided,  is  the  one  which  is  so  greatly 
modified ; it  is  evidently  much  larger  than  in  the  Cochin  skull  of 
the  same  size,  and  extends  much  further  beyond  the  interorbital 
septum,  but  laterally  is  less  deep.  This  cavity,  as  I hear  from  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  is  entirely  filled  with  brain.  In  the  skull  of  the  Cochin 
and  of  all  ordinary  fowls  a strong'  internal  ridge  of  bone  separates 
the  anterior  from  the  central  cavity  ; but  this  ridge  is  quite  absent 
in  the  Polish  skull  here  figured.  The  shape  of  the  central  cavity  is 
circular  in  the  Polish,  and  lengthened  in  the  Cochin  skull.  The 
shape  of  the  posterior  cavity,  together  with  the  position,  size,  and 
number  of  the  pores  for  the  nerves,  differ  much  in  these  two  skulls. 
A pit  deeply  penetrating  the  occipital  bone  of  the  Cochin  is  entirely 
absent  in  this  Polish  skull,  whilst  in  another  specimen  it  was  well 
developed.  In  this  second  specimen  the  whole  interna]  surface  of 
the  posterior  cavity  likewise  differs  to  a certain  extent  in  shape. 
I made  sections  of  two  other  skulls, — namely,  of  a Polish  fowl  with 
the  protuberance  singularly  little  developed,  and  of  a Sultan  in 
which  it  was  a little  more  developed ; and  when  these  two  skulls 
were  placed  between  the  two  above  figured  (fig.  35),  a perfect  gra- 
dation in  the  configuration  of  each  part  of  the  internal  surface  could 
be  traced.  In  the  Polish  skull,  with  a small  protuberance,  the  ridge 
between  the  anterior  and  middle  cavities  was  present,  but  low ; and 
in  the  Sultan  this  ridge  was  replaced  by  a narrow  furrow  standing 
on  a broad  raised  eminence. 

It  may  naturally  be  asked  whether  these  remarkable  modifications 
in  the  form  of  the  brain  affect  the  intellect  of  Polish  fowls ; some 
writers  have  stated  that  they  are  extremely  stupid,  but  Pechstein 
and  Mr.  Tegetmeier  have  shown  that  this  is  by  no  means  generally 
the  case.  Nevertheless  Pechstein®®  states  that  he  had  a Polish  hen 
which'' was  crazy,- and  anxiously  wandered  about  all  daylong.” 
A hen  in  my  possession  was  solitary  in  her  habits,  and  was  often  so 
absorbed  in  reverie  that  she  could  be  touched  ; she  was  also  deficient 
in  the  most  singular  manner  in  the  faculty  of  finding  her  way,  so 
that,  jf  she  strayed  a hundred  yards  from  her  feeding-place,  she 
was  completely  lost,  and  would  then  obstinately  try  to  proceed  in  a 
wrong  direction.  I have  received  other  and  similar  accounts  of 
Polish  fowls  appearing  stupid  or  half-idiotic.^*-' 

‘ Naturgeschichte  Deutschlands,’  have  received  commuDications  to  a 
Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  400.  similar  effect  from  Messrs.  Breut  and 

*0  Tho  ‘Field,’  May  11th,  1861.  J Tegetmeier. 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFEEENCES. 


277 


To  return  to  the  skull  of  Polish  fowls.  The  posterior  part,  viewed 
externally,  differs  little  from  that  of  G.  hankiva.  In  most  fowls 
the  j)Osterior-lateral  process  of  the  frontal  bone  and  the  process  of 
the  squamosal  bone  run  together  and  are  ossified  near  their  ex- 
tremities : this  union  of  the  two  bones,  however,  is  not  constant  in 
any  breed ; and  in  eleven  out  of  fourteen  skulls  of  crested  breeds, 
these  processes  were  quite  distinct.  These  processes,  when  not 
united,  instead  of  being  inclined  anteriorly,  as  in  all  common  breeds, 
descend  at  right  angles  to  the  lower  jaw;  and  inthi^case  the  longer 


**  sections  of  Skull,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally  A Polish  Cock 

size  ^ Cock,  selected  for  comparison  with  the  above  from  being  of  nearly  the  same 

a^s  of  the  bony  cavity  of  the  ear  is  likewise  more  perpendicular, 
than  in  other  breeds.  When  the  squamosal  process  is  free  instead 
of  expanding  at  the  tip,  it  is  reduced  to  an  extremely  fine  and 
pointed  style,  of  variable  length.  The  pterygoid  and  quadrate  bones 
present  no  differences.  The  palatine  bones  are  a little  more  curved 
upwards  at  their  posterior  ends.  The  frontal  bones,  anteriorly  to 
the  protuberance,  are,  as  in  Dorkings,  very  broad,  but  in  a variable 
degree.  The  nasal  bones  either  stand  far  apart,  as  in  Hamburghs, 
or  almost  touch  each  other,  and  in  one  instance  were  ossified 
together.  Each  nasal  bone  properly  sends  out  in  front  two  long 


278 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  Vir. 


processfts  of  equal  lengtlis,  forming  a fork;  but  in  all  the  Polish 
skulls,  except  one,  the  inner  process  was  considerably,  but  in  a 
variable  degree,  shortened  and  somewhat  upturned.  In  all  the 
skulls,  except  one,  the  two  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary, 
instead  of  running  up  between  the  processes  of  the  nasal  bones  and 
resting  on  the  ethmoid  bone,  are  much  shortened  and  terminate  in  a 
blunt,  somewhat  upturned  point.  In  those  skulls  in  which  the 
nasal  bones  approach  quite  close  to  each  other  or  are  ossified 
together,  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  ascending  branches  of  the 
premaxillary  to  reach  the  etlimoid  and  frontal  bones ; hence  we  see 
that  even  the  relative  connection  of  the  bones  has  been  changed. 
Apparently  in  consequence  of  the  bi-anches  of  the  premaxillary  and 
of  the  inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bones  being  somewhat  upturned, 
the  external  orifices  of  the  nostrils  are  upraised  and  assume  a 
crescentic  outline. 

I must  still  say  a few  words  on  some  of  the  foreign  Crested 
breeds.  The  skull  of  a crested,  rumpless,  white  Turkish  fowl  was 
very  slightly  protuberant,  and  but  little  perforated ; the  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillary  was  well  developed.  In  another 
Turkish  breed,  called  Ghoondooks,  the  skull  was  considerably  protu- 
berant and  perforated ; the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary 
were  so  much  aborted  that  they  projected  only  -j^th  of  an  inch  ; and 
the  inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bone  were  so  completely  aborted,  that 
the  surface  where  they  should  have  projected  was  quite  smooth. 
Here  then  vee  see  these  two  bones  modified  to  an  extreme  degree. 
Of  Sultans  (another  Turkish  breed)  I examined  two  skulls;  in  that 
of  the  female  the  protuberance  was  much  larger  than  in  the  male. 
In  both  skulls  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  were  very 
short,  and  in  both  the  nasal  portion  of  the  inner  processes  of  the 
nasal  bones  were  ossified  together.  These  Sultan  skulls  differed 
from  those  of  English  Polish  fowls  in  the  frontal  bones,  anteriorly 
to  the  protuberance,  not  being  broad. 

The  last  skull  which  I need  describe  is  a unique  one,  lent  to  me 
by  Mr.  Tegetmeier : it  resembles  a Polish  skull  in  most  of  its 
characters,  but  has  not  the  great  frontal  protuberance;  it  has, 
however,  two  rounded  knobs  of  a different  nature,  which  stand 
more  in  front,  above  the  lachrymal  bones.  These  curious  knobs, 
into  which  the  brain  does  not  enter,  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  a deep  medial  furrow ; and  this  is  perforated  by  a few  minute 
pores.  The  nasal  bones  stand  rather  wide  apart,  with  their  inner 
processes,  and  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary,  upturned 
and  shortened.  The  two  knobs  no  doubt  supjDorted  the  two  great 
horn -like  projections  of  the  comb. 

From  the  foregoing  facts  we  see  in  how  astonishing  a manner 
some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  vary  in  Crested  fowls.  The  pro- 
tuberance may  certainly  be  called  in  one  sense  a monstrosity,  as 
being  wholly  unlike  anything  observed  in  nature : but  as  in 
ordinary  cases  it  is  not  injurious  to  the  bird,  and  as  it  is  strictly 
inherited,  it  can  hardly  in  another  sense  be  called  a moiistrosity. 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


279 


A series  may  be  formed  commencing  with  the  black  boned  Silk 
fowl,  which  has  a very  small  crest  with  the  skull  beneath  penetrated 
only’  by  a few  minute  orifices,  but  with  no  other  change  in  its 
structure ; and  from  this  first  stage  we  may  proceed  to  fowls  with 
a moderately  large  crest,  which  rests,  according  to  Bechstein,  on  a 
fleshy  mass,  but  without  any  protuberance  in  the  skull.  I may  add 
that  1 have  seen  a similar  fleshy  or  fibrous  mass  beneath  the  tuft 
of  feathers  on  the  head  of  the  Tufted  duck  ; and  in  this  case  there 
was  no  actual  protuberance  in  the  skull,  but  it  had  become  a little 
more  globular.  Lastly,  when  we  come  to  fowls  with  a largel}' 
developed  crest,  the  skull  becomes  largely  protuberant  and  is  per- 
forated by  a multitude  of  irregular  open  spaces.  The  close  relation 
between  the  crest  and  the  size  of  the  bony  protuberance  is  shown  in 
another  way;  for  Mr.  Tegetaieier  informs  me  that  if  chickens  lately 
hatched  be  selected  with  a large  bony  protuberance,  when  adult 


Fig.  36. — Skull  of  Horned  Fowl,  of  natural  size,  viewed  from  above,  a little  obliquely.  (In 
the  possession  of  Tegetiueier.) 

they  will  have  a large  crest.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  former 
times  the  breeder  of  Polish  fowls  attended  solely  to  the  crest,  and 
not  to  the  skull ; nevertheless,  by  increasing  the  crest,  in  which  he  has 
been  wonderfully  successful,  he  has  unintentionally  made  the  skull 
protuberant  to  an  astonishing  degree ; and  through  correlation  of 
growth,  he  has  at  the  same  time  affected  the  form  and  relative  con- 
nexion of  the  premaxillary  and  nasal  bones,  the  shape  of  the  orifice 
of  the  nose,  the  breadth  of  the  frontal  bones,  the  shape  of  the  post- 
lateral processes  of  the  frontal  and  squamosal  bones,  the  direction 
of  the  axis  of  the  bony  cavity  of  the  ear,  and  lastly  the  internal 
configuration  of  the  whole  skull  together  with  the  shape  of  the 
brain. 

VertehrcE. — In  G.  hanhiva  there  are  fourteen  cervical,  seven  dorsal 
with  ribs,  apparently  fifteen  lumbar  and  sacral,  and  six  caudal 


280 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


vertebrae;^’  but  tlie  lumbar  and  sacral  are  so  much  anchylosed  that 
I am  not  sure  of  their  number,  and  this  makes  the  comparison  ol 
the  total  number  of  vertebrae  in  the  several  breeds  difficult.  I have 
spoken  of  six  caudal  vertebrae,  because  the  basal  one  is  almost 
completely  anchylosed  with  the  pelvis;  but  if  we  consider  the 
number  as  seven,  the  caudal  vertebrae  agree  in  all  the  skeletons. 
The  cervical  vertebrre  are,  as  just  stated,  in  appearance  fourteen  ; 
but  out  of  twenty-three  skeletons  in  a fit  state  for  examination,  in 
five  of  them,  namely,  in  two  Games,  in  two  pencilled  Hamburghs, 
and  in  a Polish,  the  fourteenth  vertebra  bore  ribs,  which,  though 
small,  were  perfectly  developed  with  a double  articulation.  The 
presence  of  these  little  ribs  cannot  be  considered  as  a fact  of  much 
importance,  for  all  the  cervical  vertebrae  bear  representatives  of  ribs; 
but  their  development  in  the  fourteenth  vertebra  reduces  the  size 
of  the  passages  in  the  transverse  processes,  and  makes  this  vertebra 
exactly  like  the  first  dorsal  vertebra.  The  addition  of  these  little  ribs 
does  not  affect  the  fourteenth  cervical  alone,  for  properly  the  ribs 
of  the  first  true  dorsal  vertebra  are  destitute  of  processes ; but 
in  some  of  the  skeletons  in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  bore 
little  ribs  the  first  pair  of  true  ribs  had  well-developed  processes. 
When  we  know  that  the  sparrow  has  only  nine,  and  the  swan  twenty- 
three  cervical  vertebree,'^^  we  need  feel  no  surprise  at  the  number 
of  the  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  fowl  being,  as  it  appears,  variable. 

There  are  seven  dorsal  vertebrae  bearing  ribs ; the  first  dorsal  is 
never  anchylosed  with  the  succeeding  four,  which  are  generally 
anchylosed  together.  In  one  Sultan  fowl,  however,  the  two  first 
dorsal  vertebrae  were  free.  In  two  skeletons,  the  fifth  dorsal  was 
free ; generally  the  sixth  is  free  (as  in  G.  haiikiva),  but  sometimes 
only  at  its  posterior  end,  where  in  contact  with  the  seventh.  The 
seventh  dorsal  vertebra,  in  every  case  excepting  in  one  Spanish  cock, 
was  anchylosed  with  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  So  that  the  degree  to 
which  these  middle  dorsal  vertebrae  are  anchylosed  is  variable. 

Seven  is  the  normal  number  of  true  ribs,  but  in  two  skeletons  of 
the  Sultan  fowl  (in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  vertebra  was  not 
furnished  with  little  ribs)  there  were  eight  pairs ; the  eighth  pair 
seemed  to  be  developed  on  a vertebra  corresponding  with  the  first 
lumbar  in  G.  hankiva ; the  sternal  portion  of  both  the  seventh  and 
eighth  ribs  did  not  reach  the  sternum.  In  four  skeletons  in  which 
ribs  were  developed  on  the  fourteenth  cervical  vertebra,  there  were, 
when  these  cervical  ribs  are  included,  eight  pairs ; but  in  one 
Game  cock,  in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  was  furnished  with 
ribs,  there  were  only  six  pairs  of  true  dorsal  ribs ; the  sixth  pair  in 
this  case  did  not  have  processes,  and  thus  resembled  the  seventh 


It  appears  that  I have  not 
correctly  designated  the  several  groups 
of  vertebras,  for  a great  authority, 
Mr.  W.  K.  Parker  (‘ Transact.  Zoolog. 
Soc.,’  vch  V.  p.  198),  specifies  16 
cervical,  4 dorsal,  15  lumbar,  and  6 


caudal  vertebrae  in  this  genus.  But 
I have  used  the  same  terms  in  all  the 
following  descriptions. 

Macgillivray,  ‘ British  Birds,’ vol. 
i.  p.  25 


Chai\  YIL 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFEEKENCES. 


281 


joair  in  other  skeletons ; in  this  Game  cock,  as  far  as  could  be 
judged  from  the  apjDearance  of  the  lumbar  yertebrse,  a whole  dorsal 
vertebra  with  its  ribs  was  missing.  We  thus  see  that  the  ribs 
(whether  or  not  the  little  pair  attached  to  the  fourteenth  cervical 
vertebra  be  counted)  vary  from  six  to  eight  pair.  The  sixth  pair  is 
frequently  not  furnished  with  processes.  The  sternal  portion  of 
the  seventh  pair  is  extremely  broad  in  Cochins,  and  is  completely 
ossified.  As  previously  stated,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  count  the 
lum bo-sacral  vertebrm;  but  they  certainly  do  not  correspond  in 
shape  or  number  in  the  several  skeletons,  'jfiie  caudal  vertebrjB 
are  closely  similar  in  all  the  skeletons,  the  only  difference  being 
whether  or  not  the  basal  one  is  anchylosed  to  the  pelvis;  they 
hardly  vary  even  in  length,  not  being  shorter  in  Cochins,  with  their 
short  tail-fea tilers,  than  in  other  breeds ; in  a Spanish  cock, 
however,  the  caudal  vertebrse  were  a little  elongated.  In  three 
rnmpless  fowls  the  caudal  vertebrae  were  few  in  number,  and 
anchylosed  together  into  a misformed  mass. 

In  the  individual  vertebrae  the  differences  in  structure  are  very 
slight.  In  the  atlas  the  cavity  for  the  occipital  condyle  is  either 
ossified  into  a ring,  or  is,  as  in  Bankiva, 
open  on  its  upper  margin.  The  upper  arc 
of  the  spinal  canal  is  a little  more  arched 
in  Cochins,'  in  conformity  with  the  shape 
of  the  occipital  foramen,  than  in  G.  hankiva. 

In  several  skeletons  a difference,  but  not 
of  much  importance,  may  be  observed, 
which  commences  at  the  fourth  cervical 
vertebra,  and  is  gieatest  at  about  the 
sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth  vertebra;  this 
consists  in  the  haemal  descending  processes 
being  united  to  the  body  of  the  vertebra 
by  a sort  of  buttress.  This  structure  may 
be  observed  in  Cochins,  Polish,  some  Ham- 
bnrghs,  and  probably  other  breeds ; but 
is  absent,  or  barely  developed,  in  Game,  Dorking,  Spanish,  Bantam, 
and  several  other  breeds  examined  by  me.  On  the  dorsal  surface 
of  the  sixth  cervical  vertebra  in  Cochins  three  prominent  points 
are  more  strongly  developed  than  in  the  corresponding  vertebra, 
of  the  Game  fowl  or  G.  hankiva. 


Fig.  37 — Sixth  Cervical  Vertebra, 
ofnatnral  size,  viewed  laterally. 
A.  Wild  Gallus  bankiva.  B. 
Cochin  Cock. 


Ptlvis. — This  differs  in  some  few  points  in  the  several  skeletons. 
The  anterior  margin  of  the  ilium  seems  at  first  to  vary  much  in 
outline,  but  this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  degree  to  which  the  margin 
in  the  middle  part  is  ossified  to  the  crest  of  the  vertebrae ; the  outline, 
however,  does  differ  in  being  more  truncated  in  Bantams,  and  more 
rounded  in  certain  breeds,  as  in  Cochins.  The  outline  of  the 
ischiadic  foramen  differs  considerably,  being  nearly  circular  in 
Bantams,  instead  of  egg-shaped  as  in  the  Bankiva,  and  more 
regularly  oval  in  some  skeletons,  as  in  the  Spanish.  The  obturator 
notch  is  also  much  less  elongated  in  some  skeletons  than  in  others. 


282 


FOWLS. 


Chai’.  VII. 


The  end  of  the  pnhic  bone  presents  the  greatest  difference ; being 
hardly  enlarged  in  the  Bankiva;  considerably  and  gradually 
enlarged  in  Cochins,  and  in  a lesser  degree  in  some  other  breeds; 
and  abruptly  enlarged  in  Bantams.  In  one  Bantam  this  bone 
extended  xery  little  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  ischium.  The 
whole  pelvis  in  this  latter  bird  differed  widely  in  its  proportions, 
being  far  broader  proportionally  to  its  length  than  in  Bankiva. 

Sternum. — This  bone  is  generally  so  much  deformed  that  it  is 


scarcely  possible  to  compare  its  shape  strictly  in  the  several  breeds. 

The  form  of  the  triangular  ex- 
tremity of  the  lateral  processes 
differs  considerably,  being  either 
almost  equilateral  or  much  elon- 
gated. The  front  margin  of  the 
crest  is  more  or  less  perpendicular 
and  varies  greatly,  as  does  the 
curvature  of  the  posterior  end, 
and  the  flatness  of  the  lower 
surface.  The  outline  of  the 
manubrial  process  also  varies, 
being  wedge-shaped  in  the  Ban- 
kiva, and  rounded  in  the  Spanish 
breed.  The  furculvm  differs  in 
being  more  or  less  arched,  and 
greatly,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
accompanying  outlines,  in  the 
shape  of  the  terminal  plate ; but 
the  shape  of  this  part  differed  a 
little  in  two  skeletons  of  the  wild 
Bmkiva.  The  coracoid  presents 
no  difference  worth  notice.  The 
scapula  varies  in  shape,  being  of 
nearly  uniform  breadth  in  Ban- 
kiva, much  broader  in  the  middle 
in  the  Polish  fowl,  and  abruptly 
narrowed  towards  the  apex  in 
the  two  Sultan  fow  Is. 

I carefully  compared  each 
separate  bone  of  the  leg  and  wing,  relatively  to  the  same  bones 
in  the  wild  Bankiva,  in  the  following  breeds,  which  I thought  were 
the  most  likely  to  differ;  namely,  in  Cochin,  Dorking,  Spanish, 
Polish,  Burmese  Bantam,  Frizzled  Indian,  and  black-boned  Silk 
fowls;  and  it  was  truly  surprising  to  see  how  absolutely  every 
process,  articulation,  and  pore  agreed,  though  the  bones  differed 
greatly  in  size.  The  agreement  is  far  more  absolute  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  skeleton.  In  stating  this,  I do  not  refer  to  the 
relative  thickness  and  length  of  the  several  bones ; for  the  tarsi 
varied  considerably  in  both  these  respects.  But  the  other  limb- 
bones  varied  little  even  in  relative  length, 


Fig.  3S.— Extremity  of  the  Furcula,  of 
natural  size,  viewed  laterally.  A.  Wild 
(■'alius  b'lnkiva.  B.  Spangled  Polish 
Fowl.  C.  Spanish  Fowl.  I).  Dorking 
Fowl.  ^ 


V^Il. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFEKENCES. 


283 


Finally,  I have  not  examined  a sufficient  number  of  skele- 
tons to  say  whether  any  of  the  foregoing  differences,  except 
in  the  skull,  are  characteristic  of  the  several  breeds.  Appa- 
rently some  differences  are  more  common  in  certain  breeds 
than  in  others, — as  an  additional  rib  to  the  fourteenth,  cervical 
vertebra  i-n  Hamburghs  and  Games,  and  the  breadth  of  the 
end  of  the  j)nbic  bone  in  Cochins. ' Both  skeletons  of  the 
Sultan  fowl  had  eight  dorsal  vertebrm,  and  the  end  of  the 
scapula  in  both  was  somewhat  attenuated.  In  tlie  skull,  the 
deep  medial  furrow  in  the  frontal  bones  and  the  vertically 
elongated  occipital  foramen  seem  to  be  characteristic  of 
Cochins;  as  is  the  great  breadth  of  the  frontal  bones  in 
Dorkings  ; the  separation  and  open  spaces  between  the  tips  of 
the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries  and  nasal  bones, 
as  well  as  the  front  part  of  the  skull  being  but  little  depressed, 
characterise  Hamburghs  ; the  globular  shape  of  the  posterior 
part  of  the  skull  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  laced  Bantams  ; 
and  lastly,  the  protuberance  of  the  skull  with  the  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillaries  partially  aborted,  together 
with  the  other  differences  before  specified,  are  eminently 
characteristic  of  Polish  and  other  Crested  fowls. 

But  the  most  striking  result  of  my  examination  of  the 
skeleton  is  the  great  variability  of  all  the  bones  except  those 
of  the  extremities.  To  a certain  extent  we  can  understand 
why  the  skeleton  fluctuates  so  much  in  structure ; fowls  have 
been  exposed  to  unnatural  conditions  of  life,  and  their  whole 
organization  has  thus  been  rendered  variable ; but  the  breeder 
is  quite  indifferent  to,  and  never  intentionally  selects,  any 
modification  in  the  skeleton.  External  characters,  if  not 
attended  to  by  man,  — such  as  the  number  of  the  tail  and 
wing  feathers  and  their  relative  lengths,  which  in  wild  birds 
are  generally  constant, — fluctuate  in  our  domestic  fowls  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  seveiul  parts  of  the  skeleton.  An 
additional  toe  is  a “ point  ” in  Dorkings,  and  has  become  a 
fixed  character,  but  is  variable  in  Cochins  and  Silk  fowls. 
The  colour  of  the  plumage  and  the  form  of  the  comb  are  in 
most  breeds,  or  even  sub-breeds,  eminently  fixed  characters ; 
but  in  Dorkings  these  points  have  not  been  attended  to,  and 
are  variable.  AVhen  any  modification  in  the  skeleton  is 


284 


FOWLS. 


Chai'.  YII. 


related  to  some  external  character  which  man  values,  it  has 
been,  unintentionally  on  his  part,  acted  on  by  selection,  and 
has  become  more  or  less  fixed.  We  see  this  in  the  wonderful 
protuberance  of  the  skull,  which  supports  the  crest  of  feathers 
in  Polish  fowls,  and  which  by  correlation  has  affected  other 
parts  of  the  skull.  VVe  see  the  same  result  in  the  two  pro- 
tuberances which  support  the  horns  in  the  horned  fowl,  and 
in  the  flattened  shape  of  the  front  of  the  skull  in  Hamburgh s 
consequent  on  their  flattened  and  broad  “ rose- combs.”  We 
know  not  in  the  least  whether  additional  ribs,  or  the  chan2:ed 
outline  of  the  occipital  foramen,  or  the  changed  form  of  the 
scapula,  or  of  the  extremity  of  the  furculum,  are  in  any  way 
correlated  with  other  structures,  or  have  arisen  from  the 
changed  conditions  and  habits  of  life  to  which  our  fowls  have 
been  subjected ; but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  these 
various  modifications  in  the  skeleton  could  be  rendered,  either 
by  direct  selection,  or  by  the  selection  of  correlated  structures, 
as  constant  and  as  characteristic  of  each  breed,  as  are  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  body,  the  colour  of  the  plumage,  and  the 
form  of  the  comb. 

Effects  o f the  Disuse  of  Parts. 

Judging  from  the  habits  of  our  European  gallinaceous  birds, 
Gallus  bankiva  in  its  native  haunts  would  use  its  legs  and  wings 
more  than  do  our  domestic  fowls,  which  rarely  fly  except  to  their 
roosts.  The  Silk  and  the  Frizzled  fowls,  from  having  iniperfect 
wing- feathers,  cannot  fly  at  all ; and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
both  these  breeds  are  ancient,  so  that  their  progenitors  during 
many  generations  cannot  have  flown.  The  Cochins,  also,  from  their 
short  wings  and  heavy  bodies,  can  hardly  fly  up  to  a low  perch. 
Therefore  in  these  breeds,  especially  in  the  two  first,  a considerable 
diminution  in  the  wing-bones  might  have  been  expected,  but  this  is 
not  the  case.  In  every  specimen,  after  disarticulating  and  cleaning 
the  bones,  I carefully  compared  the  relative  length  of  the  two  main 
bones  of  the  wing  to  each  other,  and  of  the  two  main  bones  of  the 
leg  to  each  other,  with  those  of  G.  bankiva;  and  it  was  surprising 
to  see  (except  in  the  case  of  the  tarsi)  how  exactly  the  same  relative 
length  had  been  retained.  This  fact  is  curious,  from  showing  how 
truly  the  proportions  of  an  organ  may  be  inherited,  although  not 
fully  exercised  during  many  generations.  I then  comjwred  in 
several  breeds  the  length  of  the  femur  and  tibia  wdth  the  humerus 
and  ulna,  and  likewise  these  same  bones  with  those  of  G.  bankiva  ; 
the  result  was  that  the  wing-bones  in  all  the  breeds  (except  the 


CilAl*.  V'll. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE. 


285 


Burmese  Jumper,  which  has  unnaturally  short  legs,  are  slightly 
shortened  relatively  to  the  leg-bones ; but  the  decrease  is  so  slight 
that  it  may  be  due  to  the  standard  specimen  of  O.  hankiva  having 
accidentally  had  wings  of  slightly  greater  length  than  usual;  so 
that  the  measurements  are  not  worth  giving.  But  it  deserves 
notice  that  the  Silk  and  Frizzled  fowls,  which  are  quite  incapable 
of  flight,  had  their  wings  less  reduced  relatively  to  their  legs  than 
in  almost  any  other  breed ! We  have  seen  with  domesticated 
pigeons  that  the  bones  of  the  wings  are  somewhat  reduced  in  length, 
whilst  the  primary  feathers  are  rather  increased  in  length,  and  it  is 
just  possible,  though  not  probable,  that  in  the  Silk  and  Frizzled 
fowls  any  tendency  to  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  wing-bones  from 
disuse  may  have  been  checked  through  the  law  of  compensation,  by 
the  decreased  growth  of  the  wing-feathers,  and  consequent  increased 
supply  of  nutriment.  The  wing-bones,  however,  in  both  these  breeds, 
are  found  to  be  slightly  reduced  in  length  when  judged  by  the 
standard  of  the  length  of  the  sternum  or  head,  relatively  to  these 
same  parts  in  G.  hankiva. 

The  actual  weight  of  the  main  bones  of  the  leg  and  wing  in  twelve 
breeds  is  given  in  the  two  first  columns  in  the  following  table.  The 
calculated  weight  of  the  wing-bones  relatively  to  the  leg-bones,  in 
comparison  with  the  leg  and  wing-bones  of  O.  hankiva,  are  given 
in  the  third  column, — the  weight  of  the  wing-bones  in  G.  hankiva 
being  called  a hundred.'^ 

Table  T. 


Names  of  Breeds. 

Actual 
; AVeight 
of 

Femur 

1 and 
Tibia, 

Actual 
Weight  of 
Humerus 
and  Ulna. 

Weight  of  Wlng- 
bunes  relatively  to 
the  Leg-bones  in 
comparison  with 
these  same  bones 
in  G.  bankiva 

Gallus  hankiva  .. 

wild  male 

Grains. 

86 

Grains. 

54 

100 

1 

Cochin  

male 

311 

162 

83 

2 

Dorking  

male 

557 

248 

70 

3 

Spanish  (Minorca)  . . 

male 

386 

183 

75 

4 

Gold-Spanglf  d Polish 

male 

306 

145 

75 

5 

Game,  black- breasted 

male 

293 

143 

77 

6 

Malay 

female 

231 

116 

80 

7 

Sultan 

male 

189 

94 

79 

8 

Indian  Frizzh  d . . 

male 

206 

88 

67 

9 

! Burmese  Jumper 

female 

53 

36 

108 

10 

Hamburgh  (pencilled)  male 

157 

101 

106 

11 

' Hamburgh  (pencilled)  female 

114 

77 

108 

12 

Sdk  (black-boned)  . . 

female 

88 

57 

103 

It  may  be  well  to  explain  how  leg  -^ones  are  to  the  wing-bones  aa 
tho  calculation  has  been  made  for  the  86  : 54,  or  as  (neglecting  decimals) 
third  column.  In  G.  hankiva  the  100  ; 62; — in  Cochins  as  311  : 162,  oj 


280 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VI 1. 


In  the  eight  first  birds,  belonging  to  distinct  breeds,  in  this  table, 
we  see  a decided  reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  bones  of  the  wing. 

In  the  Indian  Frizzled  fowl,  which  cannot  fly,  the  reduction  is 
carried  to  the  greatest  extent,  namely,  to  thirty-three  per  cent,  of 
their  proper  proportional  weight.  In  the  next  four  birds,  including 
the  Silk  hen,  which  is  incapable  of  flight,  we  see  that  the  wings, 
relatively  to  the  legs,  are  slightly  increased  in  weight;  but  it  should 
be  observed  that,  if  in  these  birds  the  legs  had  become  from  any 
cause  reduced  in  weight,  this  would  give  the  false  appearance  of 
tlie  wings  having  increased  in  relative  weight.  Now  a reduction  of 
this  nature  has  certainly  occurred  with  the  Burmese  Jumper,  in 
which  the  legs  are  abnormally  short,  and  in  the  two  Hamburghs 
and  Silk  fowl,  the  legs,  though  not  short,  are  formed  of  remarkably 
thin  and  light  bones.  I make  these  statements,  not  judging  by 
mere  eyesight,  but  after  having  calculated  the  weights  of  the  leg- 
bones  relatively  to  those  of  O.  hankiva,  according  to  the  only  two 
standards  of  comparison  which  I could  use,  namely,  the  relative 
lengths  of  the  head  and  sternum ; for  I do  not  know  the  weight  of 
the  body  in  O.  bankiva,  which  would  have  been  a better  standard. 
According  to  these  standards,  the  leg-bones  in  these  four  fowls  are 
in  a marked  manner  far  lighter  than  in  any  other  breed.  It  may 
therefore  be  concluded  that  in  all  cases  in  which  the  legs  have  not 
been  through  some  unknown  cause  much  reduced  in  weight,  the 
wing-bones  have  become  reduced  in  weight  relatively  to  the  leg- 
bones,  in  comparison  with  those  of  (Jt.  bankiva.  And  this  reduction 
of  weight  may,  I apprehend,  safely  be  attributed  to  disuse. 

To  make  the  foregoing  table  quite  satisfactory,  it  ought  to  have 
been  shown  that  in  the  eight  first  birds  the  leg-bones  have  not  actually 
increased  in  weight  out  of  due  proportion  with  the  rest  of  the  body ; 
this  I cannot  show,  from  not  knowing,  as  already  remarked,  the 
weight  of  the  wild  Bankiva.’^  I am  ind^eed  inclined  to  suspect  that 
the  leg-bones  in  the  Dorking,  No.  2 in  the  table,  are  proportionally 
too  heavy ; but  this  bird  was  a very  large  one,  weighing  7 lb.  2 oz., 
though  very  thin.  Its  leg-bones  were  more  than  ten  times  as  heavy 
as  those  of  the  Burmese  Jumper!  I tried  to  ascertain  the  length 
both  of  the  leg-bones  and  wing-bones  relatively  to  other  parts  of 
the  body  and  skeleton  : but  the  whole  organisation  in  these  birds, 
which  have  been  so  long  domesticated,  has  become  so  variable,  that 


«s  100  : 52  ; — in  Dorkings  as  557  : 248, 
or  as  100  : 44 ; and  so  on  for  the 
ether  breeds.  We  thus  get  the  series 
62,  52,  44  for  the  relative  weights 
of  the  wing-bones  in  6r.  hankka^ 
Cochins,  Dorkings,  &c.  And  now 
taking  10  \ instead  of  62,  tor  the 
weight  of  the  wing-bones  in  G.  bankiva, 
we  get,  by  another  rule  of  three,  84 
as  the  weign.  of  the  wing-bones  in 
Cochins;  70  in  the  Dorkings;  and 


so  on  for  the  remainder  of  the  third 
column  in  the  table. 

Mr.  Blyth  (in  ‘Annals  and  Mag. 
of  Nat.  Hist.,’  2nd  series,  vol.  I„  1 848, 
p.  456)  gives  3^  lb.  as  the  weignt  of 
a full-grown  male  G,  bankiva;  but 
from  what  I have  seen  of  the  skins 
and  skeletons  of  various  breeds,  I 
cannot  believe  that  ray  two  specimens 
of  G.  bankiva  could  have  weighed  so 
much. 


Chap.  VII. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE. 


28Y 


no  certain  conclusions  could  be  reached.  For  instance,  the  legs  of 
the  above  Dorking  cock  were  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  too 
short  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  and  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  too  long  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  skull, 
in  comparison  with  these  same  parts  in  G.  hankiva. 

In  the  following  Table  II.  in  the  two  first  columns  we  see  in 
inches  and  decimals  the  length  of  the  sternum,  and  the  extreme 
depth  of  its  crest  to  which  the  pectoral  muscles  are  attached.  In 
the  third  column  we  have  the  calculated  depth  of  the  crest,  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  in  comparison  with  these  same  pnrts 
in  G.  hankiva!''^ 

Table  II. 


Names  of  breeds. 

Length 

of 

Sternum. 

Depth  of 
Crest 
of 

Sternum. 

Depth  of  Crest 
relatively  to  the 
length  of  the 
Sternum,  in 
comparison  with 
G.  banMva. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Gallus  hankiva 

male 

4-20 

1-40 

100 

1 

Cochin 

male 

5-83 

1-55 

78 

2 

Dorking  . . 

. . mala 

8-9.5 

1-97 

84 

3 

Spanish  

. . male 

61i> 

1-83 

90 

4 

Polish  

. . male 

5-07 

1-.50 

87 

5 

Game  

..  male 

.5-55 

1-55 

81 

6 

Malay  

, . female 

5 10 

1-50 

87 

7 

Sultan  

. . male 

4-47 

1-36 

90 

8 

Frizzled  hen 

4-25 

1-20 

84 

9 

Burmese  Jumper  . . 

. , female 

3-06 

0-85 

81 

10 

Hamburgh 

. . male 

5 08 

1-40 

81 

11 

Hamburgh  

4 55 

1 26 

81 

12 

Silk  fowl  

, . female 

4-49 

1-01 

68 

By  looking  to  the  third  column  we  see  that  in  every  case  the 
depth  of  the  crest  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  in  com- 
parison with  G.  hankiva,  is  diminished,  generally  between  10  and 
20  per  cent.  But  the  degree  of  reduction  varies  much,  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  frequently  deformed  state  of  the  sternum.  In 
the  Silk  fowl,  which  cannot  %,  the  crest  is  34  per  cent,  less  deep 
than  what  it  ought  to  have  been.  This  reduction  of  the  crest  in  all 
the  breeds  probably  accounts  for  the  great  variability,  before 
referred  to,  in  the  curvature  of  the  furculum,  and  in  the  shape  of  its 
sternal  extremity.  Medical  men  believe  that  the  abnormal  form  of 
the  spine  so  commonly  observed  in  women  of  the  higher  ranks 
results  from  the  attached  muscles  not  being  fully  exercised.  So 
it  is  with  our  domestic  fowls,  for’  they  use  their  pectoral  muscles 


The  third  column  is  calculated  on  the  same  principle  as  explained  in  the 
previous  foot-note,  p.  285. 


288 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  Vll 


but  little,  and,  ont  of  twenty-five  sternum s examined  by  me,  three 
alone  were  perfectly  symmetrical,  ten  were  moderately  crooked,  and 
twelve  were  deformed  to  an  extreme  degree.  Mr.  Romanes,  however, 
believes  that  the  malformation  is  due  to  fowls  whilst  young  resting 
their  sternums  on  the  sticks  on  which  they  roost. 

Finally,  we  ma}’’  conclude  with  respect  to  the  various  breeds 
of  the  fowl,  that  the  main  bones  of  the  wing  have  probably 
been  shortened  in  a very  slight  degree  ; that  they  have  certainly 
become  lighter  relatively  to  the  leg-bones  in  all  the  breeds  in 
which  these  latter  bones  are  not  unnaturally  short  or  deli- 
cate ; and  that  the  crest  of  the  sternum,  to  which  the  pectoral 
muscles  are  attached,  has  invariably  become  less  prominent, 
the  whole  sternum  being  also  extremely  liable  to  deformity*. 
These  results  we  may  attribute  to  the  lessened  use  of  the 
wings. 

Correlation  of  Growth. — I will  here  sum  up  the  few  facts 
which  I have  collected  on  this  obscure,  but  important,  subject. 
In  Cochin  and  Game  fowls  there  is  perhaps  some  relation 
between  the  colour  of  the  plumage  and  the  darkness  of  the 
egg-shell.  In  Sultans  the  additional  sickle-feathers  in  the 
tail  are  apparently  related  to  the  general  redundancy  of  the 
plumage,  as  shown  by  the  feathered  legs,  large  crest,  and 
beard.  In  two  tailless  fowls  which  I examined  the  oil-gland 
was  aborted.  A large  crest  of  feathers,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
has  remarked,  seems  alway^s  accompanied  by  a great  dimi- 
nution or  almost  entire  absence  of  the  comb.  A large  beard, 
is  similarly  accompanied  by  diminished  or  absent  wattles. 
These  latter  cases  apparently  come  under  the  law  of  com- 
pensation or  balan  cement  of  growth.  A large  beard  beneath 
the  low*er  jaw  and  a large  top-knot  on  the  skull  often  gc 
together.  Tho  c;omb  when  of  any  peculiar  shape,  as  with 
Horned,  Spanish,  and  Hamburgh  fowls,  affects  in  a corre 
spending  manner  the  underlying  skull ; and  we  have  seen 
liow  wonderfully^  this  is  the  case  with  Crested  fowls  when 
the  crest  is  largely  developed.  With  the  protuberance  of  the 
frontal  bones  the  shape  of  the  internal  sur'ace  of  the  skull 
and  of  the  brain  is  greatly  modified.  The  presence  of  a crest 
influences  in  some  unknown  way  the  development  of  the 
ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  bone,  and  of  the 


Chap.  VII. 


CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH. 


289 


inner  processes  of  the  nasal  hones  ; and  likewise  the  shape  of 
tlie  external  orifice  of  the  nostrils.  There  is  a plain  and 
curious  correlation  between  a crest  of  feathers  and  the  im 
perfectly  ossified  condition  of  the  skull.  Not  only  does  this 
hold  good  with  nearly  all  crested  fowls,  but  likewise  with 
tufted  ducks,  and  as  Dr.  Gunther  informs  me  with  tufted 
geese  in  Germany. 

Lastly,  the  feathers  composing  the  crest  in  ~hiale  Polish 
fowls  resemble  hackles,  and  differ  greatly  in  shape  from  those 
in  the  crest  of  the  female.  The  neck,  wing-coverts,  and  loins 
in  the  male  bird  are  properly  covered  with  hackles,  and  it 
would  appear  that  feathers  of  this  shape  have  spread  by 
correlation  to  the  head  of  the  male.  'J'his  little  fact  is  in- 
teresting ; l)ecause,  though  both  sexes  of  some  wild  gallina- 
ceous birds  have  their  heads  similarly  ornamented,  yet  there 
is  often  a difference  in  the  size  and  shape  of  feathers  forming 
their  crests.  Furthermore,  there  is  in  some  cases,  as  in  the 
male  Gold  and  in  the  male  Amherst  pheasants  (P.  pirtiis  and 
amJiersfice),  a close  relation  in  colour,  as  well  as  in  structure, 
between  the  plumes  on  the  head  and  on  the  loins.  It  would 
therefore  appear  that  the  same  law  has  regulated  the  state  of 
the  feathers  on  the  head  and  body,  both  with  species  liAung 
under  natural  conditions,  and  with  birds  which  have  varied 
under  domestication. 


20 


290 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap.  VIll 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

DUCK— (lOOSE— PEACOCK — TURKEY GUINEA-FOWD— CANARY- 

BiRD — GOLD-FISH — HI  VK-BEES— SILK-MOTIIS. 

DU(U\S,  SEVERAL  BREEDS  OP— PROGRESS  OP  DOMESTICATION — ORIGIN  OF 
PROJI  THE  COMMON  AVILD-DrCFi — DIPPERENCES  IN  THE  DIPPJ'RIENT  BREEDS 
— OSTEOLOlHCAL  DIPPERENCES — EPPECTS  OP  USE  AND  DISUSE  ON  THE 
LIJIB-BONES. 

GOOSE,  ANCIENTLY  DOMESTICATED — LITTLE  VARIATION  OF — SEBASTOPOL 
BREED. 

PEACOCK,  ORIGIN  OF  BLACK-SHOULDERED  BREED. 

'J'UKKEY,  BREEDS  OF — CROSSED  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  SPECIES — 
EPPECTS  OP  CLIMATE  ON. 

GUINEA-EOWL,  CANAEY-BIRD,  GOLD-FISH,  HIVE-BEES. 
SlEK-MO'l’HS,  SPECIES  and  breeds  op — anciently  domesticated — 

CARE  IN  THEIR  SELECTION — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  RACES — IN 
THE  EGG,  CATERPILLAR  AND  COCOON  STATES — INHERITANCE  OF  CHA- 
- RACTERS— IMPERFECT  WINGS — LOST  INSTINCTS — CORRELATED  CHARACTERS. 

I WILL,  as  in  previous  cases,  first  briefly  describe  the  chief 
domestic  breeds  of  the  duck : — 

Breed  1.  Cummon  Domestic  Duck. — Varies  much  in  colour  and 
in  proportions,  and  differs  in  instincts  and  disposition  from  the 
wild  duck.  There  are  several  sub-breeds : — (1)  The  Aylesbury,  of 
great  size,  white,  with  pale-yellow  beak  and  legs ; abdominal  dermal 
sack  largely  developed.  (2)  The  Rouen,  of  great  size,  coloured  like 
the  wild  duck,  with  green  or  mottled  beak;  dermal  sack  largely 
developed,  (d)  Tufted  Duck,  with  a large  top-knot  of  fine  downy 
feathers,  supported  on  a fleshy  mass,  with  the  skull  perforated 
beneath.  The  top-knot  in  a duck  which  I imported  from  Holland 
was  two  and  a half  inches  in  diameter.  (4)  Labrador  (or  Canadian, 
or  Buenos  Ayres,  or  East  Indian) ; plumage  entirely  black ; beak 
broader,  relatively  to  its  length,  than  in  the  wild  duck ; eggs  slightly 
tinted  with  black.  This  sub-breed  perhaps  ought  to  be  ranked  as 
a breed;  it  includes  two  sub- varieties,  one  as  large  as  the  common 
domestic  duck,  wdiich  I have  kept  alive,  and  the  other  smaller  and 
often  capable  of  flight.^  I presume  it  is  this  latter  sub-variety 
wdiich  has  been  described  in  Fran  e ^ as  flying  well,  being  rather 
wild,  and  when  cooked  having  the  flavour  of  the  wild  duck  ; never- 


• ‘Poultry  Chronicle ’ (1854),  vol.  ^ Dr  Turral,  in  ‘ Bull.  Soc.  d’Ac- 
u.  p.  91,  and  vol.  i.  p.  3oO  climat.,’  torn.  vii.  1860,  p.  541. 


OiiAP.  vni 


EXTEENAL  DIFFERENCES. 


291 


Hieless  this  sub-variety  is  polygamous,  like  other  domesticated 
ducks  and  unlike  the  wild  duck.  These  black  Ijabrador  ducks 
breed  true ; but  a case  is  given  by  Dr.  Turral  of  the  French  sub- 
variety  produciDg  young  with  some  white  feathers  on  the  head  and 
neck,  and  with  an  ochre-coloured  patch  on  the  breast. 

Breed  2.  Evohhilled  Buck. — This  bird  presents  a^!  extraordinn ry 
appearance  from  the  downward  curvature  of  the  beak.  The  head  is 
often  tufted.  The  common  colour  is  white,  but  some  are  coloured 
like  wild  ducks.  It  is  an  ancient  breed,  having  been  noticed  in 
.1676.®  It  shows  its  prolonged  domestication  by  almost  incessantly 
laying  eggs,  like  the  fowls  which  are  called  everlasting  layers.^ 

Breed  3.  Call  Duck. — Remarkable  from  its  small  size,  and  from 
the  extraordinary  loquacity  of  the  female.  Beak  short.  These 
birds  are  either  white,  or  coloured  like  the  wild  duck. 

Breed  4.  Feuguin  Duck. — This  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the 
breeds,sand  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  Malayan  archipelago. 
It  walks  with  its  body  extremely  erect,  and  with  its  thin  neck 
stretched  straight  upwards.  Beak  rather  short.  Tail  upturned, 
including  only  18  feathers.  Femur  and  metatarsus  elongated. 


Almost  all  naturalists  admit  that  the  several  breeds  are 
descended  from  the  common  wild  duck  {Anas  hoschas')  ; most 
fanciers,  on  the  other  hand,  take  as  usual  a veiy  different 
view.^  Unless  we  deny  that  domestication,  prolonged  during 
centuries,^  can  affect  even  such  unimportant  characters  as 
colour,  size,  and  in  a slight  degree  proportional  dimensions 
and  mental  disposition,  there  is  no  reason  whatever  to  doubt 
that  the  domestic  duck  is  descended  from  ihe  common  wild 
species,  for  the  one  differs  from  the  other  in  no  important 
character.  We  have  some  historical  evidence  with  respect  to 
the  period  and  progress  of  the  domestication  of  the  duck.  It 
Avas  unknown®  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  to  the  Jew^s  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  to  the  Greeks  of  the  Homeric  period. 
About  eighteen  centuries  ago  Columella  and  Varro  speak  of 


’ Willughby’s  ‘Ornithology,’  by 
Raj,  p.  381.  This  breed  is  also 
figured  by  Albin,  in  1734,  in  his 
‘ Nat.  Hist,  of  Birds,’  vol.  ii.  p.  86. 

* F.  Cuvier, in ‘Annales  du Museum,’ 
tom,  ix.  p.  128,  says  that  moulting 
and  incubation  alone  stops  these  ducks 
laying.  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent  makes  a 
similar  remark  in  the  ‘Poultry  Chro- 
nicle,’ 1855,  vcl.  iii.  p.  512. 


® Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  ‘Ornamental 
and  Domestic  Poultry’  (1848),  p. 
117.  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  in  ‘Poultry 
Chronicle,’  vol.  iii.,  1855,  p.  512. 

® Crawfurd  on  the  ‘ Relation  of 
Domesticated  Animals  to  Civilisation,’ 
read  before  the  Brit.  Assoc,  at  Oxford, 
1860. 

^ Bureau  de  la  Malle,  in  ‘Annales 
des  Sciences  Nat.,’  tom.  xvii.  p.  164; 


2,12 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap.  VIIT. 


the  necessity  of  keeping  ducks  in  netted  enclosures  like  other 
wild  fowl,  so  that  at  this  period  there  was  danger  of  their 
Hying  away.  Moreover,  the  plan  recoinincnded  by  Columella 
to  those  who  wish  to  increase  their  stock  of  ducks,  namely 
to  collect  the  eggs,  of  the  wild  bird  and  to  place  them  under 
a hen,  shows,  as  Mr.  Dixon  remarks,  “ that  the  duck  had 
not  at  this  time  become  a naturalized  and  prolific  inmate  of 
the  Roman  poultry-yard.”  The  oiigin  of  the  domestic  duck 
from  the  wild  species  is  recognised  in  nearly  every  language 
of  Europe,  as  Aldrovandi  long  ago  remarked,  by  the  same 
name  being  applied  to  both.  The  wild  duck  has  a wide 
range  from  the  Himalayas  to  North  America.  It  crosses 
]-eadily  with  the  domestic  bird,  and  the  crossed  offspring  are 
perfectly  fertile. 

Both  in  North  America  and  Europe  the  wild  duck  has  been 
found  easy  to  tame  and  breed.  In  Sweden  Ihis  experiiment 
was  carefully  tried  by  Tiburtius ; he  succeeded  in  rearing 
wild  ducks  for  three  generations,  but,  though  they  were 
treated  like  common  ducks,  they  did  not  vary  even  in  a 
single  feather.  The  young  birds  suffered  from  being  allowed 
to  swim  about  in  cold  water, ^ as  is  known  to  be  the  case, 
though  the  fact  is  a strange  one,  with  the  young  of  the 
common  domestic  duck.  An  accurate  and  well-known  ob- 
server in  England^  has  described  in  detail  his  often  repeated 
and  successful  experiments  in  domesticating  the  wild  duck. 
Young  birds  are  easily  reared  from  eggs  hatched  under  a 
bantam;  but  to  succeed  it  is  indispensable  not  to  place  the 
eggs  of  both  the  wild  and  tame  duck  under  the  same  hen, 
for  in  this  case  “the  young  wild  ducks  die  off,  leaving  their 
more  hardy  brethren  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  foster- 
mother’s  care.  The  difference  of  habit  at  the  onset  in  the 


!Uid  tom.  XXI.  p.  5.5.  Rev.  E.  S. 
DixoQ,  ‘Ornamental  Poultry,’  p.  118. 
Tame  ducks  were  not  known  in  Aris- 
totle’s time,  as  remarked  by  Volz,  in 
his  ‘ Beitrage  zur  Kulturgeschichte,’ 
1852,  s.  78. 

® I quote  this  account  from  ‘ Die 
Enten-  und  Schwanenzucht,’  Ulm, 
1828,  s.  143.  Audubon’s  ‘ Ornitho- 
logical Biography,’  vol.  iii.  p.  168,  on 


the  taming  of  ducks  on  the  Mississippi. 
For  the  same  fact  in  England,  see  Mr. 
Waterton  in  Loudon’s  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Hist.,’  vol.  viii.  1835,  p.  542  ; and 
Mr.  St.  John,  ‘Wild  Sports  and  Nat. 
Hist,  of  the  Highlands,’  1846,  p.  129. 

® Mr.  E.  Hewitt,  in  ‘Journal  ot 
Horticulture,’  1862,  p.  773;  and 
1863,  p.  39. 


Chap.  VIII. 


EXTERNAL  DIFFERENCES. 


293 


newly-hatclied  ducklings  almost  entails  such  a result  to  a 
certainty.”  The  wild  ducklings  were  from  the  first  quite 
tame  towards  those  who  took  care  of  them  as  long  as  they 
wore  the  same  clothes,  and  likewise  to  the  dogs  and  cats  of 
the  house.  They  would  even  snap  with  their  beaks  at  the 
dogs,  and  drive  them  away  from  any  spot  which  they  coveted. 
Hut  they  were  much  alarmed  at  strange  men  and  dogs. 
Differently  fi  om  what  occurred  in  Sweden,  Mr. 'Hewitt  found 
that  his  young  birds  always  changed  and  deteriorated  in 
character  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  generations  ; not- 
withstanding that  great  care  was  taken  to  prevent  their 
crossing  with  tame  ducks.  After  the  third  generation  his 
birds  lost  the  elegant  carriage  of  the  wild  species,  and  began 
to  acquire  the  gait  of  the  common  duck.  They  increased  in 
size  in  each  generation,  and  their  legs  became  less  fine.  The 
white  collar  round  the  neck  of  the  mallard  became  broader 
and  less  regular,  and  some  of  the  longer  primary  wing-feathers 
became  more  or  less  white.  When  this  occurred,  Mr.  Hewitt 
destroyed  nearly  the  whole  of  his  stock  and  procured  fresh 
eggs  from  wild  nests ; so  that  he  never  bred  the  same  family 
for  more  than  five  or  six  generations.  His  birds  continued 
to  pair  together,  and  never  became  polygamous  like  the 
common  domestic  duck.  I have  given  these  details,  because 
no  other  case,  as  far  as  I know,  has  been  so  carefully  re- 
corded by  a competent  observer  of  the  progress  of  change 
in  wild  birds  reared  for  several  generations  in  a domestic 
Condition. 

From  these  considerations  there  can  hardly  be  a doubt  that 
the  wild  duck  is  the  parent  of  the  common  domestic  kind ; 
nor  need  we  look  to  other  species  for  the  parentage  of  the 
'more  distinct  breeds,  namely.  Penguin,  Call,  Hook-billed, 
Tufted,  and  Labrador  ducks.  I will  not  repeat  the  arguments 
used  ii\  the  previous  chapters  on  the  improbability  of  man 
having  in  ancient  times  domesticated  several  species  since 
become  unknown  or  extinct,  though  ducks  are  not  readily 
exterminated,  in  the  wild  state; — on  some  of  the  supposed 
parent-species  having  had  abnormal  characters  in  comparison 
with  all  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  as  with  Hook-billed 
and  Penguin  ducks ; — on  all  the  breeds,  as  far  as  is  known 


294 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


CUA1>,  V III. 


being  fertile  together;^® — on  all  the  breeds  having  the  same 
general  disposition,  instinct,  Szg.  But  one  fact  bearing  on 
this  (][uestion  may  be  noticed:  in  the  great  duck  family,  one 
species  alone,  namely,  the  male  of  A.  boschas,  has  its  four 
middle  tail-feathers  curled  upwardly ; now  in  every  one 
of  the  above-named  domestic  breeds  tlicse  curled  feathers 
exist,  and  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  descended  fi’om 
distinct  species,  we  must  assume  that  man  formerly  liit 
upon  species  all  of  which  had  this  now  unique  character. 
Moi cover,  subvarieties  of  each  breed  are  coloured  almost 
exactly  like  the  wild  duck,  as  I have  seen  with  the 
largest  and  smallest  breeds,  namely  Rouens  and  Call  ducks, 
and,  as  Mr.  Brent  states,^^  is  the  case  with  Hook  billed 
ducks.  This  gentleman,  as  he  informs  me,  crossed  a white 
Aylesbury  drake  and  a black  Labrador  duck,  and  some  of 
the  ducklings  as  they  grew  up  assumed  the  plumage  of  the 
wild  duck. 

With  respect  to  Penguins,  I have  not  seen  many  specimens, 
and  none  were  coloured  precisely  like  the  wild  duck ; but  Sir 
dames  Brooke  sent  me  three  skins  from  Lombok  and  Bali,  in 
the  Malaj^an  archipelago;  the  two  fenrdes  were  paler  and 
more  rufous  than  the  wild  duck,  and  the  drake  dPlered  in 
having  the  whole  under  and  upper  surface  (excepting  the 
neck,  tail-coverts,  tail,  and  wings)  silver-grey,  finely  pencilled 
with  dark  lines,  closely  like  certain  parts  of  the  plumage  of 
the  wild  mallard.  But  I found  this  drake  to  be  identical  in 
every  feather  with  a variety  of  the  common  breed  procured 
from  a farm-yard  in  Kent,  and  I have  occasionally  elsewhere 
seen  similar  specimens.  The  occurrence  of  a duck  bred  under 
so^joeculiar  a climate  as  that  of  the  Malayan  archipelago, 
where  the  wild  species  does  not  exist,  with  exactly  the  same 


1 have  met  with  several  state- 
ments on  the  fertility  of  the  several 
breeds  when  crossed.  Mr.  Yarrell 
assured  me  that'  Call  and  common 
ducks  are  perfectly  fertile  together. 
I crossed  Hook-billed  and  common 
ducks,  and  a Penguin  and  Labrador, 
and  the  crossed  Ducks  were  quite 
fertile,  though  they  were  not  bred 


inter  se,  so  that  the  experiment  was 
not  fully  tried.  Some  half-brea 
Penguins  and  Labradors  were  agaiii 
crossed  with  Penguins,  and  subse- 
(juently  bred  by  me  inter  se,  and  they 
were  extremely  fertile. 

" ‘ Poultry  Chronicle,’  1855,  vol 
iii.  p.  512. 


Chap.  VUL 


EXTEENAL  DIFFEKENCES. 


295 


plumage  as  may  occasionally  be  seen  in  our  farm-yards,  is  a 
fact  worth  notice.  Nevertheless  the  climate  of  the  Malayan 
archipelago  apparently  tends  to  cause  the  duck  to  vary  much, 
for  Zollinger,^-  speaking  of  the  Penguin  breed,  says  that  in 
'Lombok  “ there  is  an  unusual  and  very  wonderful  variety  of 
ducks.”  One  Ptmguin  drake  which  I kept  alive  differed  from 
those  of  which  the  skins  were  sent  me  from  Lombok,  in 
havirg  its  breast  and  back  partially  coloured  Avith  chestnul- 
brown,  thus  more  closely  resembling  the  Mallard. 

From  these  several  facts,  more  especially  from  the  drakes 
of  all  the  breeds  having  curled  tail-feathers,  and  from  certain 
sub-varieties  in  each  breed  occasionally  resembling  in  general 
plumage  the  wild  duck,  we  may  conclude  with  confidence 
that  all  the  breeds  are  descended  from  A.  hoschas. 

I will  now  notice  some  of  the  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the 
several  breeds.  The  eggs  vary  in  colour ; some  common  ducks 
laying  pale-greenish  and  others  quite  white  eggs.  The  eggs  which 
are  first  laid  during  each  season  by  the  black  Labrador  duck,  are 
tinted  black,  as  if  rubbed  with  ink.  A good  observer  assured  me 
that  one  year  his  ducks  of  this  breed  laid  almost  perfectly  white 
eggs.  Another  curious  case  shows  what  singular  variations  some- 
times occur  and  are  inherited ; Mr.  Hansell  relates  that  he  had 
a common  duck  which  always  laid  eggs  with  the  yolk  of  a dark- 
brown  colour  like  melted  glue ; and  the  young  ducks,  hatched  from 
these  eggs,  laid  the  same  kind  of  eggs,  so  that  the  breed  had  to  be 
destroyed. 

The  Hook-billed  duck  is  highly  remarkable  (see  fig.  of  skull, 
woodcut  No.  39);  and  its  peculiar  beak  has  been  inherited  at 
legist  since  the  year  1676.  This  structure  is  evidently  analogous 
with  that  described  in  the  Bagadotten  carrier  pigeon.  Mr.  Brent 
says  that,  when  Hook-billed  ducks  are  crossed  with  common  ducks, 
“ many  young  ones  are  produced  with  the  upper  mandible  shorter 
than  the  lower,  which  not  unfrequently  causes  the  death  of  the 
bird.”  With  ducks  a tuft  of  feathers  on  the  head  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  occurrence ; namely,  in  the  True-tulted  breed,  the  Hook-billed, 
the  common  farm-yard  kind,  and  in  a duck  having  no  other  pecu- 
liarity which  was  sent  to  me  from  the  Malayan  archipelago.  The 
tuft  is  only  so  I'ar  interesting  as  it  affects  the  skull,  which  is  thus 
rendered  slightly  more  globular,  and  is  perforated  by  numerous 
apertures.  Call  ducks  are  remarkable  from  their  extraordinary 


‘Journal  of  f'le  Indian  Archi-  (1849-1850),  p.  2353. 
pelago,’  vol.  V.  p.  334.  ‘ Poultry  Chronicle,’  1855,  vol, 

**  ‘The  Zoologist,’  vols.  vii.,  viii.  iii.  p.  512. 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap.  Vlll 


29() 


lo(iuacity:  the  drake  only  hisses  like  common  drakes;  nevertheless 
wlien  paired  with  the  common  duck,  ho  transmits  to  his  female 
offspring  a strong  quacking  tendency.  This  loquacity  seems  at 
lirst  a surprising  character  to  have  been  acquired  under  domesti- 
cation. But  the  voice  varies  in  the  different  breeds;  Mr.  Brent 
says  that  Hook-billed  ducks  arc  very  loquacious,  and  that  Eouens 
utter  a “dull,  loud,  and  monotonous  cry,  easily  distinguishable  by 
an  experienced  ear.”  As  the  loquacity  of  the  Call  duck  is  highly 
serviceable,  these  birds  being  used  in  decoys,  this  quality  may  have 
been  increased  by  selection.  For  instance.  Colonel  Hawker  says,  if 
young  wild  ducks  cannot  bo  got  for  a decoy,  “ by  way  of  make-shift, 
aelect  tame  birds  which  are  the  most  clamorous,  even  if  their  colour 
should  not  be  like  that  of  wild  ones.”  It  has  been  erroneously 
asserted  that  Call  ducks  hatch  their  eggs  in  less  time  than  common 
ducks  I' 

The  Penguin  duck  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  breeds ; the 
thin  neck  and  body  are  carried  erect ; the  wings  are  small ; the  tail 
is  upturned;  and  the  thigh-bones  and ■ metatarsi  are  considerably 
lengthened  in  proportion  with  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  duck. 
In  five  specimens  examined  by  me  there  were  only  eighteen  tail- 
feathers  instead  of  twenty  as  in  the  wild  duck;  but  I have  also 
found  only  eighteen  and  nineteen  tail-feathers  in  two  Labrador 
ducks.  On  the  middle  toe,  in  three  specimens,  there  were  twenty- 
seven  or  twenty-eight  scutelise,  whereas  in  two  wild  ducks  there  were 
thirty-one  and  thirty-two.  The  Penguin  when  crossed  transmits 
with  much  power  its  peculiar  form  of  body  and  gait  to  its  offspring  ; 
tliis  was  manifest  with  some  hybrids  raised  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  between  one  of  these  birds  and  the  Egyptian  goose 
{Anser  cegyptiacus) , and  likewise  with  some  mongrels  which  I 
raised  between  the  Penguin  and  Labrador  duck.  1 am  not  much 
surprised  that  some  writers  should  maintain  that  this  breed  must 
be  descended  from  an  unknown  and  distinct  species ; but  from  the 
reasons  already  assigned,  it  seems  to  me  far  more  probable  that  it 
is  the  descendant,  much  modified  by  domestication  under  an 
unnatural  climate,  of  Anas  hoschis.^ 

Osttological  Characters  — The  skulls  of  the  several  breeds  differ 
from  each  other  and  from  the  skull  of  the  wild  duck  in  very  little 
except  in  the  proportional  length  and  curvature  of  the  premaxil- 
laries.  These- latter  bones  in  the  Cali  duck  are  short,  and  a line 
drawn  from  their  extremities  to  the  summit  of  the  skull  is  nearly 
straight,  instead  of  being  concave  as  in  the  common  duck ; so  that 


^ Poultry  Chronicle,’  vol.  iii. 
1855,  p.  312.  With  respect  to  Houeus, 
see  ditto,  vol.  i.,  1854,  p.  167. 

'®  Col.  Hawker’s  ‘ Instructions  to 
''oung  Sportsmen,’  quoted  by  Mr. 
Dixon  in  his  ‘ Ornamental  Poultry,’ 
p.  125. 


‘Cottage  Gardener,’  April  9th, 

1861. 

These  hybrids  have  been  described 
by  M.  Selys-Longchamps  in  the 
‘Bulletins  (tom.  xii.  No  10)  Acad. 
Roy.  de  Bruxelles.’ 


Chap.  VIII.  DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS.  297 

the  skull  resembles  that  of  a small  goose.  In  the  Hook-billed  duck 
(tig.  by),  these  same  bones  as  well  as  the  lower  jaw  curve  down- 
wards in  a most  reniarkabJe  manner,  as  represented.  In  the 
Labrador  duck  the  premaxillaries  are  rather  broader  than  in  the 
wild  duck;  and  in  two  skulls  of  this  breed  the  vertical  ridges  on 
each  side  of  the  supra-occipital  bone  are  very  prominent.  In  the 
Penguin  the  premaxillaries  are  relatively  shorter  than  in  the  wild 
duck;  and  the  inferior  points  of  the  paramastoids  more  prominent. 
In  a Dutch  tufted  duck,  the  skull  .under  the  enormous  tuft  was 
slightly  more  globular  and  was  perforated  by  two  large  apertures ; 
ill  this  skull  the  lachrymal  bones  were  produced  much  further 
backwards,  so  as  to  have  a ditferent  shape  and  nearly  to  touch  the 
post.  lat.  processes  of  the  frontal  bones,  thus  almost  completing  the 
bony  orbit  of  the  eye.  As  the  quadrate  and  pterygoid  bones  are  of 


Fig  39.— Skulls,  viewed  laterally,  reduced  to  two-thirds  of  the  natural  size.  A.  V/ild  Duck. 
B.  Hook-billed  Duck. 


such  complex  shape  and  stand  in  relation  with  so  many  other 
bones,  I carefully  compared  them  in  all  the  principal  breeds ; but 
excepting  in  size  they  presented  no  difference. 

Vertebree  and  llihs. — ^In  one  skeleton  of  the  Labrador  duck  there 
were  the  usual  fifteen  cervical  vertebrae  and  the  usual  nine  dorsal 
vertebrae  bearing  ribs ; in  the  other  skeleton  there  were ' fifteen 
cervical  and  ten  dorsal  vetebrae  with  ribs ; nor,  as  far  as  could  be 
judged,  was  this  owing  merely  to  a rib  having  been  developed  on 
the  first  lumbar  vertebra;  for  in  both  skeletons  the  lumbar 
vertebrae  agreed  perfectly  in  number,  shape,  and  size  with  those  of 
the  wild  duck.  In  two  skeletons  of  the  Call  duck  there  weie 


298 


DOxMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap  VIII. 


fifteen  cervical  and  nine  dorsal  vertebrae  ; in  a third  skeleton  small 
ribs  were  attaclied  to  the  so-called  fifteenth  cervical  vertebra, 
making  ten  ijairs  of  ribs ; but  these  ten  ribs  do  not  correspond,  or 
arise  from  the  same  vertebra,  with  the  ten  in  the  above-mentioned 
Labrador  duck.  In  the  Call  duck,  which  had  small  ribs  attached 
to  the  fifteenth  cervical  vertebra,  the  haemal  spines  of  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  (cervical)  and  of  the  seventeenth  (dorsal)  vertebrae 
corresponded  with  the  spines  on  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and 
eighteenth  vertebrae  of  the  wild  duck : so  that  each  of  these 
vertebrae  had  acquired  a structure  proper  to  one  posterior  to  it  in 

position.  In  the  eighth  cervical 
vertebra  of  this  same  Call  duck 
(fig.  40,  B ),  the  two  branches  of  the 
haemal  spine  stand  much  closer 
together  than  in  the  wild  duck 
(A),  and  the  descending  haemal 
processes  are  much  shortened. 
In  the  Penguin  duck  the  neck 
from  its  thinness  and  erectness 
falsely  appears  (as  ascertained  by 
measurement)  to  be  much  elon- 
gated, but  the  cc  rvical  and  dorsal 
vertebrae  present  no  difference; 
the  posterior  dorsal  vertebrae, 
however,  are  more  completely 
anchylosed  to  the  pelvis  lhan  in 
the  wild  duck.  The  Aylesbury 
duck  has  fifteen  cervical  and  ten 
dorsal  vertebrae  furnished  with 
ribs,  but  the  same  number  of 
luinbar,  sacral,  and  caudal  verte- 
brae, as  far  as  could  be  traced,  as 
ill  the  wild  duck.  The  cervical 
vertebrae  in  this  same  duck  (fig. 
40,  D)  were  much  broader  and  thicker  relatively  to  their  length  than 
in  the  wild  (C) ; so  much  so,  that  I have  thought  it  tvorth  while  to 
give  a sketch  of  the  twelfth  cervical  vertebra  in  these  two  birds. 
From  the  foregoing  statements  we  see  that  the  fifteenth  cervical 
vertebra  occasionally  becomes  modified  into  a dorsal  vertebra,  an  I 
when  this  occurs  all  the  adjoining  vertebrae  are  modified.  We  abo 
see  that  an  additional  dorsal  vertebra  bearing  a rib  is  occasion iliy 
developed,  the  number  of  the  cervical  and  lumbar  vertebnc 
apparently  remaining  the  same  as  usual. 

I examined  the  bony  enlargement  of  the  trachea  in  the  ma’es  of 
the  Penguin,  Call,  Hook-billed,  Labrador,  and  Aylesbury  breeds ; 
and  in  all  it  was  identical  in  shape. 

The  is  remarkably  uniform  ; but  in  the  skeleton  of  the 

Hook-billed  duck  the  anterior  ]3nrt  is  much  bowed  inwards  ; in  the 
Aylesbury  and  some  other  breeds  the  ischiadic  foramen  is  less 


Fig.  4^. — Cervical  Vertebrae,  of  natural  size. 
A.  Eighth cei  vical  vertebra  of  Wild  Duck, 
viewed  on  haemal  sur'ace.  B.  Eighth 
cervical  vertebra  of  Call  Duck,  viewed  as 
above  C.  Twelfth  cervical  vertebra  of 
Wild  Duck  viewed  lateral! V.  D.  Twelfth 
corvic.d  vertebra  of  Aylesbury  Duck, 
viewed  laterally. 


Chap.  VIII 


EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE. 


29D 


elongated.  In  the  sternum,  furcnlnm,  coracoids,  and  scapulm,  the 
differences  are  so  slight  and  so  variable  as  not  to  be  worth  notice, 
except  that  in  two  skeletons  of  the  Penguin  duck  the  terminal 
portion  of  the  scapula  was  much  attenuated. 

In  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  wing  no  modification  in  shape  could 
bo  observed.  But  in  the  Penguin  and  Hook-billed  ducks,  the 
terminal  phalanges  of  the  wing  are  a little  shortened.  In  the 
former,  the  femur,  and  metatarsus  (but  not  the  tibia)  are  con- 
siderably lengthened,  relatively  to  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  duck, 
and  to  the  wing-bones  in  both  birds.  This  elongation  of  tho  leg- 
bones  could  be  seen  whilst  the  bird  was  alive,  and  is  no  doubt 
connected  with  its  peculiar  upright  manner  of  walking.  In  a 
large  Aylesbury  duck,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tibia  was  the  only 
bone  of  the  leg  which  relatively  to  the  other  bones  was  slightly 
lengthened. 

On  thf'-  effects  of  the  increased  and  decreased  Use  of  the  Limbs. — In 
all  the  breeds  the  bones  of  the  wing  (measured  separately  after 
having  been  cleaned)  relatively  to  those  ol  the  leg  have  become 
slightly  shortened,  in  comparison  with  the  same  bones  in  the  wild 
duck,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table ^ 


Name  of  Breed. 

Length  of  Femur, 
Tibia,  and  Meta- 
tarsus together. 

Length  of  Humerus, 
Radius,  and  Meta- 
carpus together. 

Or  as 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Wild  mallard  

7-14 

9-28 

100  : 129 

Aylesbury  ..  ..  .. 

8-64 

10-43 

100  : 120 

Tufted  (Dulcli) 

8-25 

9-83 

100  : 119 

Penguin  

7-12 

8-78 

Moo  : 123 

Call  

6-20 

7-77 

100  : 125 

Length  of  same 

Length  of  all  the 

Bones. 

Bones  of  Wing. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

i 

Wild  duck  (another  speci- 

1 

men)  

.6-85 

10-07 

1 100  ; 147 

Common  domestic  duck  . . 

8*15 

11-26 

100  ; 138 

In  the  foregoing  table  we  see,  by  comparison  with  the  wild  duck, 
that  the  reduction  in  the  length  of  the  bones  of  the  wing,  re-” 
lativefy  to  those  of  the  legs,  though  slight,  is  universal.  The 
reduction  is  least  in  the  Call  duck,  which  has  the  power  and  the 
habit  of  frequently  flying. 

In  weight  there  is  a greater  relative  difference  between  the  bones 
of  the  leg  and  wing,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table ; — 


300 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap.  \11L 


Name  of  Breed. 

Wclglit  of  Femur, 
Tibia,  and 
Metatarsus. 

Weight  of 
Humerus,  Radius, 
and  Metacarpus. 

Or  as 

Grains. 

Graii.s. 

Wild  inallai'd 

54 

97 

100  : 179 

Aylesbury 

164 

204 

10!)  ; 124 

llookeil-bill 

107 

160 

100  : 149 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

111 

148 

100  : 134 

Dengiiiii 

1 75 

90-5 

100  : 120 

Labiador 

i 

165 

100  : 117 

Call 

1 

94 

100  : 163 

Weight  of  all  the  1 

I Weight  of  all  the 

Bones  of  the 

Bones  of  the 

Log  and  Foot. 

1 Wing. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Wild  (another  speciinea) 

66 

115 

100  : 173 

Common  domestic  duck . . 

127 

158 

100  : 124 

In  these  domesticated  birds,  the  considerably  lessened  weight  of 
the  bones  of  the  wing  (^.  e.  on  an  average,  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
their  proper  proportional  weight),  as  well  as  their  slightly  lessened 
length,  relatively  to  the  leg-bones,  might  follow,  not  from  any 
actual  decrease  in  the  wing-b’ones,  but  from  the  increased  weight 
and  length  of  the  bones  of  the  legs.  The  first  of  the  two  tables  on 
the  next  page  shows  that  the  leg-bones  relatively  to  the  weight  of 
the  entire  skeleton  have  really  increased  in  weight ; but  the  second 
table  shows  that  according  to  the  same  standard  the  wing-bones 
have  also  really  decreased  in  weight;  so  that  the  relative  dis- 
proportion shown  in  the  foregoing  tables  between  the  wing  and  leg- 
bones,  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  wild  duck,  is  partly  due  to 
the  increase  in  weight  and  length  of  the  leg-bones,  and  partly  to 
the  decrease  in  weight  and  length  of  the  wing-bones. 

With  respect  to  the  two  following  tables,  I may  first  state  that  I 
tested  them  by  taking  another  skeleton  of  a wild  duck  and  of  a 
common  domestic  duck,  and  by  comparing  the  weight  of  all  the 
bones  of  the  leg  with  all  those  of  the  wings,  and  the  result  was  the 
same.  In  the  first  of  these  tables  we  see  that  the  leg-bones  in  each 
case  havti  increased  in  actual  weight.  It  might  have  been  expected 
tliat,  with  the  increased  or  decreased  weight  of  the  entire  skeleton, 
the  leg-bones  would  have  become  proportionally  heavier  or  lighter ; 
but  their  greater  weight  in  all  the  breeds  relatively  to  the  other 
bones  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  these  domestic  birds  having 
used  their  legs  in  walking  and  standing  much  more  than  the  wild, 
for  they  never  fly,  and  the  more  artificial  breeds  rarely  swim.  In 
the  second  table  we  see,  with  the  exception  of  one  case,  a plain 
reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  bones  of  the  wing,  and  this  no  doubt 
has  resulted  from  their  lessened  use.  The  one  exceptional  casc; 


Chap.  VIII. 


EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE. 


301 


Name  of  Breed. 

Wciglit  of  entire 
Skeleion. 

(N.B.  One  Metatar- 
sus and  Foot  was 
removed  irom  each 
skeleton,  as  it  had 
been  accidentally  lost 
in  t'\  0 cases.) 

Weight  of 
Femur, 
ribia,  and 
Metatarsus. 

Or  a« 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Wild  mallard  

889 

54 

1000  ; 61 

Aylesbury  

1925 

164 

1000  :-85 

'I'ulted  (Dutch) 

1404 

111 

1000  : 79 

Penguin  

871 

75 

1000  : 86 

Call  (from  Mr.  Fox)  ..  .. 

717 

57 

lOuO  ; 79 

Weight  of 

Weight  of  Skeleton 

Humerus, 

as  above. 

Radius  and 

Metacarpus. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Wild  mallard 

839 

97 

1000  : 115 

Aylesbury 

1925 

204 

1000  : 105 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

1404 

148 

ICOO  : 105 

Penguin  

871 

90 

1000  : 103 

Call  (from  Mr.  Baker) 

914 

100 

1000  : 109 

Call  (from  Mr.  Fox)  . . 

717 

92 

1000  : 129 

namely,  in  one  of  the  Call  ducks,  is  in  truth  no  exception,  for  this 
bird  was  constantly  in  the  habit  of  flying  about ; and  I have  seen 
it  day  after  clay  rise  from  my  grounds,  and  fly  for  a long  time  in 
circles  of  more  than  a mile  in  diameter.  In  this  Call  duck  there  is 
not  only  no  decrease,  but  an  actual  increase  in  the  weight  of  the 
wing-bones  relatively  to  those  of  the  wild-duck  ; and  this  probably 
is  consequent  on  the  remarkable  lightness  and  thinness  of  all  the 
bones  of  the  skeleton. 

Lastly,  I weighed  the  furculum,  coracoids,  and  scapula  of  a wild 
duck  and  of  a common  domestic  duck,  and  I found  that  their 
weight,  relatively  to  that  of  the  whole  skeleton,  was  as  one  hundred 
in  the  form^er  to  eighty-nine  in  the  latter;  this  shows  that  these 
bones  in  the  domestic  duck  have  been  reduced  eleven  per  cent,  of 
their  due  proportional  weight.  The  prominence  of  the  crest  of  the 
sternum,  relatively  to  its  length,  is  also  much  reduced  in  all  the 
domestic  breeds.  These  changes  have  evidently  been  caused  by 
the  lessened  use  of  the  wings. 

It  is  well  known  that  several  birds,  belonging  to  different 
Orders,  and  inhabiting  oceanic  islands,  have  their  wings 
greatly- reduced  in  size  and  are  incapable  of  flight.  I sug- 
gested in  my  ‘ Origin  of  Species  ’ that,  as  these  birds  are  not 


302 


DOMESTIC  GOOSE. 


Chap,  vnr 


persecuted  by  any  enemies,  the  reduction  of  their  wings  had 
probably  been  caused  by  gradual  disuse.  Hence,  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  process  of  reduction,  such  birds  would 
jmobably  have  resembled  our  domesticated  ducks  in  the  state 
of  their  organs  of  flight.  'J'his  is  the  case  with  the  water- 
hen  (Gallinvla  nesiotis)  of  Tristan  d’Acunha,  which  “can 
flutter  a little,  but  obviously  uses  its  legs,  and  not  its  wings, 
as  a mode  of  escape.”  Now  Mr.  Sclater^®  finds  in  this  bird 
that  the  wings,  sternum,  and  coracoids  arc  all  reduced  in 
length,  and  the  crest  of  the  sternum  in  depth,  in  comparison 
with  the  same  bones  in  the  European  water-hen  (6r.  cldoropus). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  thigh-bones  and  pelvis  are  increased 
in  length,  the  former  by  four  lines,  relatively  to  the  same 
bones  in  the  common  water-hen.  Hence  in  the  skeleton  of 
this  natural  species  nearly  the  same  changes  have  occurred, 
only  carried  a little  further,  as  with  onr  domestic  ducks,  and 
in  this  latter  case  I presume  no  one  will  dispute  that  they 
have  resulted  from  the  lessened  use  of  the  wings  and  the  in- 
creased use  of  the  legs. 


The  Goose. 


This  bird  deserves  some  notice,  as  hardly  any  other  anciently 
domesticated  bird  or  quadruped  has  varied  so  little,  d'hat 
geese  were  anciently  domesticated  we  know  from  certain 
verses  in  Homer ; and  from  these  birds  having  been  kept 
(388  B.c.)  in  the  Capitol  at  Eome  as  sacred  to  Juno,  which 
sacredness  implies  great  antiquity. That  the  goose  has 
varied  in  some  degree,  we  may  infer  from  naturalists  not 
being  unanimous  with  respect  to  its  wild,  parent-foi  m ; 
though  the  difficulty  is  chiefly  due  to  the  existence  of  three 
or  four  closely  'allied  wild  European  species. A large 
majority  of  capable  judges  are  convinced  that  our  geese  are 
descended  from  the  wild  Grey-leg  goose  (A.  ferns) ; the 


‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soe,,’  1861,  p. 

261. 

20  ‘ Ceylon,’  by  8ir  J.  E.  Tennent, 
1859,  vol.  i.  p.  485;  also  J.  Crawfurd 
on  the  ‘ Kelation  of  Domest.  Animals 
to  Civilisation,’  read  before  Brit. 
Assoc.  1860.  See  also  ‘ Ornamental 


Poultry,’  by  Kev.  E.  S,  Di.xon,  1848, 
p.  132.  The  goose  figured  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments  seems  to  have 
been  the  Ked  goose  of  Egypt. 

21  Maegillivray’s  ‘British  Birds,’ 
vol.  iv.  p.  593. 


Chap  VTIL 


DOMESTIC  GOOSE. 


young  of  which  can  easily  be  tamed. This  species,  when 
crossed  with  the  domestic  goose,  produced  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  as  I was  assured  in  1849,  perfectly  fertile  offspring.^^ 
Yarrell  has  observed  that  the  lower  part  of  the  trachea  of 
rlie  domestic  goose  is  sometimes  flattened,  and  that  a ring  of 
white  feathers  sometimes  surrounds  the  base  of  the  beab. 
4’]iese  characters  seem  at  first  sight  good  indications  of  a 
cross  at  some  former  period  with  the  white-fronted  goose 
{A.  albifrons) ; but  the  white  ring  is  variable  in  this  latter 
species,  and  we  must  not  overlook  the  law  of  analogous  varia- 
tion ; that  is,  of  one  species  assuming  some  of  the  chai  actors 
of  allied  species. 

As  the  goose  has  proved  so  little  flexible  in  its  organization 
under  long-continned  domestication,  the  amount  of  variation 
which  it  has  undergone  may  be  worth  giving.  It  has  increased 
in  size  and  in  productiveness  and  varies  from  white  to  a 
dusky  colour.  Several  observers^®  have  stated  that  the 
gander  is  more  frequently  white  than  the  goose,  and  that 
when  old  it  almost  invariably  becomes  white ; but  this  is  not 
the  case  with  the  parent-form,  the  A.  ferus.  Here,  again,  the 
law  of  analogous  variation  may  have  come  into  play,  as  the 
almost  snow-white  male  of  the  Kock  goose  (^Bernida  antarctica) 
standing  on  the  sea- shore  by  his  dusky  partner  is  a sight 
well  known  to  those  who  have  traversed  the  sounds  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  Some  geese  have  top- 
knots ; and  the  skull  beneath,  as  before  stated,  is  perforated. 
A snb-breed  has  lately  been  formed  with  the  feathers  reversed 
at  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck.^"^  The  beak  varies  a little 
in  size,  and  is  of  a yellower  tint  than  in  the  wild  species ; but 


Mr.  A.  Strickland  (‘Annals  and 
]\lag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  3rd  series,  vol, 
iii.  1859,  p,  122)  reared  some  young 
wild  geese,  and  found  them  in  habits 
and  in  all  characters  identical  with 
ihe  domestic  goose, 

2®  See  also  Hunter’s  ‘ Essays,’  edited 
by  Owen,  vol.  ii.  p.  322. 

2+  YarrelTs  ‘ British  Birds,’  vol.  iii. 
p.  142. 

2®  L.  Llfjyd,  ‘ Scandinavian  Adven- 
tures,’ 1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  413,  says  that 


the  wild  goose  lays  from  five  to  eiglit 
eggs,  which  is  a much  fewer  number 
than  that  laid  by  our  domestic  goose, 

2*5  The  Rev.  L.  Jenyns  seems  fiivt 
to  have  made  this  observation  in  Ins 
‘British  Animals.’  See  also  Yarrell, 
and  Dixon  in  his  ‘ Ornamental  Poul- 
try ’ (p.  139),  and  ‘ Gardener’s  Chroni- 
cle,’ 1857,  p.  45, 

2^  Mr.  Bartlet  exhibited  the  head 
and  neck  of  a bird  thus  characterised 
before  the  Zoological  Soc.,  Feb.  1800, 


304 


DOMESTIC  GOOSE. 


Chap.  VIII. 


its  colour  ;ni(l  that  of  the'  legs  are  Voth  slightly  variable.^'’ 
This  latter  fact  deserves  attention,  hecanse  the  colour  of  th<3 
logs  and  beak  is  highly  serviceable  in  discriminating  the 
several  closely  allied  wild  forms. At  our  Shows  two  breeds 
are  exhibited;  viz.  the  Embden  and  Toulouse;  but  tliey 
differ  in  nothing  except  colour.^”  hecently  a smaller  aril 
singular  variety  has  been  imported  ft’oin  Sebastopol, with 
the  scapular  feathers  (as  I hoar  from  JMr.  Tegetmeier,  who 
sent  me  specimens)  greatly  elongated,  curled,  and  even 
spirally  twisted.  The  margins  of  these  feathers  are  rendered 
plumose  by  the  divergence  of  the  barbs  and  bai-bulos,  so  that 
they  resemble  in  some  degree  those  on  the  back  of  the  black 
Australian  swan.  These  feathers  are  likewise  remaikablo 
from  the  central  shaft,  which  is  excessively  thin  and  trans- 
parent, being  split  into  fine  filaments,  which,  after  running  for 
a space  free,  sometimes  coalesce  again.  It  is  a curious  fact  that 
these  filaments  are  regularly  clothed  on  each  side  with  fine 
down  or  barbules,  precisely  like  those  on  the  proper  barbs  of 
the  feather.  This  structure  of  the  feathers  is  transmitted  to 
half-bred  birds.  In  Gall  us  sonneratii  the  barbs  and  barbules 
blend  together,  and  form  thin  horny  plates  of  the  same  nature 
with  the  shaft : in  this  variety  of  the  goose,  the  shaft  divides 
into  filaments  which  acquire  barbules,  and  thus  resemble  true 
barbs. 

Although  the  domestic  goose  certainly  differs  somewhat 
from  any  known  wild  species,  yet  the  amount  of  variation 
which  it  has  undergone,  as  compared  with  that  of  most 
domesticated  animals,  is  singularly  small.  This  fact  can  bo 
partially  accounted  for  by  selection  not  having  come  largely 
into  play.  Birds  of  all  kinds  which  present  many  distinct 
races  are  valued  as  pets  or  ornaments ; no  one  makes  a pet  of 
the  goose;  the  name,  indeed,  in  more  langujiges  than  one,  is 
a term  of  reproach.  The  goose  is  valued  for  its  size  and 
llavour,  for  the  whiteness  of  its  feathers  which  adds  to  their 

W.  Thompson,  ‘ Natural  Hist,  of  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  3rd  series, 
Iri.dand,’  1851,  vol.  iii.  p.  31.  The  vol  iii.  1859  p.  122. 

Rev.  K.  S.  Di.xon  gave  me  some  infoi-  ‘ Poultry  Chronicle,’ vol.  i.,  1854. 

mation  on  the  v'arying  colour  of  the  p.  498;  vol.  iii.  p.  210. 

beak  and  legs.  ‘The  Cottage  Gardener,’  Sept 

Mr.  A.  Strickland,  in  ‘Annals  4th,  1860,  p.  318. 


Chap.  VIII. 


PEACOCK. 


305 


value,  and  for  its  prolificness  and  tameness.  Tn  all  these 
points  the  goose  dilfers  from  the  wild  parent-form ; and  these 
are  the  points  which  have  been  selected.  Even  in  ancient 
limes  the  Roman  gourmands  valued  the  liver  of  the  ivhite 
goose;  and  Pierre  Belon^^  in  1555  speaks  of  two  varieties, 
one  of  which  was  larger,  more  fecund,  and  of  a better  coloiii' 
than  the  other ; and  he  expressly  states  that  good  managers 
attended  to  the  colour  of  their  goslings,  so  that  they  might 
know  which  to  preserve  and  select  for  breeding. 

The  Peacock. 

This  is  another  bird  which  has  hardly  varied  under  domesti- 
cation, except  in  sometimes  being  white  or  piebald.  Mr. 
Waterhouse  carefully  compared,  as  he  informs  me,  skins  of 
the  wild  Indian  and  domestic  bird,  and  they  were  identical 
in  every  respect,  except  that  the  plumage  of  the  latter  was 
perhaps  rather  thicker.  Whether  our  birds  are  descended 
from  those  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  time  of  Alexander, 
or  have  been  subsequently  imported,  is  doubtful.  They  do 
not  breed  very  freely  with  us,  and  are  seldom  kept  in  large 
numbers, — circumstances  which  would  greatly  interfere  with 
the  gradual  selection  and  formation  of  new  breeds. 

There  is  one  strange  fact  with  respect  to  the  peacock, 
namely,  the  occasional  appearance  in  England  of  the 
“japanned”  or  “black-shouldered”  kind.  This  form  has 
lately  been  named  on  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Sclater  as  a 
distinct  species,  viz.  Favo  nigri^ennis,  which  he  believes  will 
hereafter  be  found  wild  in  some  country,  but  not  in  India, 
where  it  is  certainly  unknown.  The  males  of  these  japanned 
birds  differ  conspicuously  from  the  common  peacock  in  the 
colour  of  their  secondary  wing-feathers,  scapulars,  wing- 
coverts,  and  thighs,  and  are  I think  more  beautiful ; they 
are  rather  smaller  than  the  common  sort,  and  are  always 
beaten  by  them  in  their  battles,  as  I hear  from  the  Hon. 
A.  S.  G.  Canning.  The  females  are  much  paler  coloured  than 
those  of  the  common  kind.  . Both  sexes,  as  Mr.  Canning 

‘ L’Hist.  de  la  Nature  desOiseaux,’  being  preferred  by  the  Romans,  se^ 
p-ar  P.  Belon,  1555,  p.  156.  With  Isid.  GeofFroy  St. -Hilaire,  ‘ Hist  Nat. 
respeet  to  the  livers  of  white  geese  Gen.,’  tom.  iii.  p.  58, 

21 


306 


PEACOCK. 


Chap.  VIII. 


informs  me,  are  white  when  they  leave  the  egg,  and  they  differ 
from  the  young  of  the  white  variety  only  in  having  a peculiar 
pinkish  tinge  on  their  wings.  These  japanned  birds,  though 
appearing  suddenly  in  flocks  of  the  common  kind,  propagate 
tlieir  kind  quite  truly.  Although  they  do  not  resemble 
the  hybrids  which  have  been  raised  between  P.  eristatus  and 
muticus,  nevertheless  they  are  in  some  respects  intermediate  in 
character  between  these  two  sjoecies ; and  this  fact  favours, 
as  Mr.  Sclater  believes,  the  view  that  they  form  a distinct 
and  natural  species. 

On  the  other  hand,  Sir  E.  Heron  states  that  this  breed 
suddenly  appeared  within  his  memory  in  Lord  Brownlow’s 
large  stock  of  pied,  white,  and  common  peacocks.  The  same 
thing  occurred  in  Sir  J.  Trevelyan’s  flock  composed  entirely 
of  the  common  kind,  and  in  Mr.  Thornton’s  stock  of  common 
and  pied  peacocks.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  these  two  latter 
instances  the  black- shouldered  kind,  though  a smaller  and 
weaker  bird,  increased,  “ to  the  extinction  of  the  previously 
existing  breed.”  I have  also  received  through  Mr.  Sclater  a 
statement  from  Mr.  Hudson  Gurney  that  he  reared  many 
years  ago  a pair  of  black-shouldered  peacocks  from  the 
common  kind;  and  another  ornithologist.  Prof.  A.  Newton, 
states  that,  five  or  six  years  ago,  a female  bird,  in  all  respects 
similar  to  the  female  of  the  blaclv-shouldered  kind,  was 
produced  from  a stock  of  common  peacocks  in  his  possession, 
which  during  more  than  twenty  years  had  not  been  crossed 
with  birds  of  any  other  strain.  Mr.  Jenner  Weir  informs 
me  that  a peacock  at  Blackheath  whilst  young  was  white, 
but  as  it  became  older  gradually  assumed  the  characters  of  the 
black-shouldered  variety ; both  its  parents  were  common 
peacocks.  Lastly,  Mr.  Canning  has  given  a case  of  a female 
of  this  same  variety  appearing  in  Ireland  in  a flock  of  the 
ordinary  kind.^“  Here,  then,  we  have  seven  well  authenticated 


Mr.  Sclater  on  the  black-shoul- 
dcreJ  peacock  of  Latham.  ‘ Proc. 
Zoolog.  Soc.,’  April  24th,  1880.  Mr. 
Swinhoe  at  one  time  believed  (‘  Ibis,’ 
July,  1868)  that  this  kind  of  pea- 
fowl was  found  wild  in  Cochin  China, 
but  he  has  since  informed  me  that  he 


feels  very  doubtful  on  this  head. 

‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  April  14tli, 

1835. 

The  Field,  May  6th,  1871.  I 
am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Canning 
for  inhumation  with  respect  to  his 
birds. 


Chap.  VIII. 


PEACOCK. 


.307 


cases  in  Great  Britain  of  japanned  birds,  having  suddenly 
appeared  within  recent  times  in  flocks  of  the  common  pea- 
fowl. This  variety  mnst  also  have  formerly  appeared 
in  Europe,  for  Mr.  Canning  has  seen  an  old  picture,  and 
another  is  referred  to  in  the  ‘ Field,’  with  this  vaiiet}- 
represented.  These  facts  seem  to  me  to  indicate  that  the 
japanned  peacock  is  a strongly  marked  variety  or  “ sport,” 
which  tends  at  all  times  and  in  many  places  to.  reappear. 
This  view  is  supported  by  the  young  being  at  first  white 
like  the  young  of  the  white  breed,  which  is  undoubtedly  a 
variation.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  believe  the  japanned 
peacock  to  be  a distinct  species,  we  must  suppose  that  in  all  the 
above  cases  the  common  breed  had  at  some  former  period  been 
crossed  by  it,  but  had  lost  every  trace  of  the  cross ; yet 
that  the  offspring  of  these  birds  suddenly  and  completely 
reacquired  through  reversion  the  characters  of  P.  ni/jripennis. 
I have  heard  of  no  other  such  case  in  the  animal  or  vegetable 
kingdom.  To  perceive  the  full  improbability  of  such  an 
occurrence,  we  may  suppose  that  a breed  of  dogs  had  been 
crossed  at  some  former  period  with  a wolf,  but  had  lost  every 
trace  of  the  wolf-like  character,  yet  that  the  breed  gave  birth 
in  seven  instances  in  the  same  country,  within  no  great 
length  of  time,  to  a wolf  perfect  in  every  character ; and  we 
must  further  suppose  that  in  two  of  the  cases,  the  newly 
produced  wolves  afterwards  spontaneously  increased  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  lead  to  the  extinction  of  the  parent 
breed  of  dogs.  So  remarkable  a bird  as  the  P.  Nigripennis. 
when  first  imported,  would  have  realized  a large  price  ; it  is 
therefore  improbable  that  it  should  have  been  silently  in- 
troduced and  its  history  subsequently  lost.  On  the  whole 
the  evidence  seems  to  me,  as  it  did  to  Sir  E.  Heron,  to  be 
decisive  in  favour  of  the  japanued  or  black-shouldered  breed 
being  a variation,  induced  by  some  unknown  cause.  On  this 
view,  the  case  is  the  most  remarkable  one  ever  recorded  of 
the  abrupt  appearance  of  a new  form,  which  so  closely 
resembles  a true  species  that  it  has  deceived  one  of  the  most 
experienced  of  living  ornithologists. 


308 


TURKEY. 


Chap.  VITI. 


The  Turkey. 

It  seems  fairly  will  established  by  Mr.  Gould, that  the 
turkey,  in  accordance  with  the  history  of  its  first  intro- 
duction, is  descended  from  a wild  Mexican  form,  which  had 
been  domesticated  by  the  natives  before  the  discovery 
of  America,  and  which  is  now  generally  ranked  as  a local 
race,  and  not  as  a distinct  species.  However  this  may  be, 
the  case  deserves  notice  because  in  the  United  States  wild 
male  turkeys  sometimes  court  the  domestic  hens,  which  are 
descended  from  the  Mexican  form,  “and  are  generally  received 
by  them  with  great  pleasure.”  Several  accounts  have 
likewise  been  published  of  young  birds,  reared  in  the  United 
States  from  the  eggs  of  the  wild  species,  crossing  and  com- 
mingling with  the  common  breed.  In  England,  also,  this 
same  species  has  been  kept  in  several  parks ; from  two  of 
which  the  Eev.  W.  D.  Fox  procured  birds,  and  they  crossed 
freely  with  the  common  domestic  kind,  and  during  many 
years  afterwards,  as  he  informs  me,  the  turkeys  in  his  neigh- 
bourhood clearly  showed  traces  of  their  crossed  parentage. 
We  here  have  an  instance  of  a domestic  race  being  modified 
by  a cross  with  a distinct  wild  race  or  species.  F.  Michaux 
suspected  in  1802  that  the  common  domestic  turkey  was  not 
descended  from  the  United  States  species  alone,  but  likewise 
from  a southern  form,  and  he  went  so  far  as  to  believe  that 
English  and  French  turkeys  differed  from  having  different 
proportions  of  the  blood  of  the  two  parent-forms. 

English  turkeys  are  smaller  than  either  wild  form.  They 
have  not  varied  in  any  great  degree ; but  there  are  some 
breeds  which  can  be  distinguished-- as  Norfolks,  Suffolks, 
Whites,  and  Copper- coloured  (or  Cambridge),  all  of  which. 


‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  April  8th, 
1856,  p.  61.  Prof.  Baird  believes  (as 
quoted  in  Tegetmeier’s‘  Poultry  Book,’ 
1866,  p.  269)  that  our  turkeys  are 
descended  from  a West  Indian  species 
now-extinct.  But  besides  the  impro- 
bability of  a bird  haAung  long  ago 
become  extinct  in  these  large  and 
luxuriant  islands,  it  appears  (as  we 
Ehall  presently  see)  that  the  turkey 


degenerates  in  India,  and  this  fact 
indicates  that  it  was  not  aboriginally 
an  inhabitant  of  the  lowlands  of  the 
tropics. 

Audubon’s  ‘Ornithological  Bio-, 
graphy.,’  vol.  i.,  1831,  pp.  4-13;  and 
‘ Naturalist’s  Library,’  vol.  xiv.,  Birds, 
p.  138. 

F.  Michaux,  ‘ TrarvHs  in  N.  Ame- 
rica,’ 1802,  Eng.  translat.,  p.  217. 


Chap.  VIII. 


TURKEY. 


309 


if  precluded  from  crossing  with  other  breeds  propagate  their 
kind  truly.  Of  these  kinds,  the  most  distinct  is  the  small, 
hardy,  dull-black  Norfolk  turkey,  of  which  the  chickens  are 
black,  occasionally  with  white  patches  about  the  head.  The 
other  breeds  scarcely  differ  except  in  colour,  and  their  chickens 
are  generally  mottled  all  over  with  brownish-grey.^®  The  in  - 
ferior  tail-coverts  vary  in  number,  and  according  to  a G erman 
superstition  the  hen  lays  as  many  eggs  as  tho  cock-  has 
feathers  of  this  kind.^®  Albin  in  1738,  and  Temminck  within  a 
much  later  period,  describe  a beautiful  breed,  dusky-yellowish, 
brown  above  and  white  beneath,  with  a large  top-knot  of 
soft  plumose  feather.  The  spurs  of  the  male  were  rudimentary. 
This  breed  has  been  for  a long  time  extinct  in  Europe;  but 
a living  specimen  has  lately  been  imported  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  which  still  retains  the  top-knot  and  the 
same  general  colouring  and  rudimentary  spurs.^^  Mr.  Wilmot 
has  described  a white  turkey-cock  having  a crest  formed  of 
“ feathers  about  four  inches  long,  with  bare  quills,  and  a tuft 
of  soft  white  down  growing  at  the  end.”  Many  of  the 
young  birds  inherited  this  kind  of  crest,  but  afterwards 
it  fell  off  or  was  pecked  out  by  the  other  birds.  This  is  an 
interesting  case,  as  with  care  a new  breed  might  probably 
have  been  formed ; and  a top-knot  of  this  nature  would  have 
been  to  a certain  extent  analogous  to  that  borne  by  the  males 
in  several  allied  genera,  such  as  Euplocomus,  Lophophorus, 
and  Pavo. 

Wild  turkeys,  believed  in  every  instance  to  have  been  im- 
ported from  the  United  States,  have  been  kept  in  the  parks 
of  Lords  Powis,  Leicester,  Hill,  and  Derby.  The  Eev.  W.  D. 
Fox  procured  birds  from  the  two  first-named  parks,  and  he 
informs  me  that  they  certainly  differed  a little  from  each 
other  in  the  shape  of  their  bodies  and  in  the  barred  plumage 
on  their  wings.  These  birds  likewise  differed  from  Lord 
Hill’s  stock.  Some  of  the  latter  kept  at  Oulton  by  Sir  P. 

‘ Ornamental  Poetry,’  by  the  • Oct.  31,  1868,  p.  233 ; and  Mr. 
Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  1848,  p.  34.  Tegetmeier  in  the  ‘Field,’  July  17, 

Bechstein,  ‘ Natui'gesch.  Deutsch-  1869,  p.  46. 
lands,’  B.  iii.,  1793,  s.  309.  ‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1852,  p 

Mr.  Bartlett  in  ‘ Land  and  Water,’  699 . 


310 


GUINEA  FOWL. 


Chap.  VIIU 


Eger  ton,  though  precluded  from  crossing  Avith  common 
til]  keys,  occasionally  produced  much  paler-coloured  birds, 
and  one  that  was  almost  white,  but  not  an  albino.  These 
lialf-wild  turkeys,  in  thus  differing  slightly  from  each  other, 
])resent  an  analogous  case  with  the  wild  cattle  kept  in  the 
several  British  parks.  We  must  suppose  that  such  differences 
have  resulted  from  the  prevention  of  free  intercrossing 
between  birds  ranging  over  a wide  area,  and  from  the 
changed  conditions  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  in 
England.  In  India  the  climate  has  apparently  wrought  a 
still  greater  change  in  the  turkey,  for  it  is  described  by  Mr. 
Blyth^^  as  being  much  degenerated  in  size,  “utterly  in- 
capable of  rising  on  the  wing,”  of  a black,  colour,  and  “ with 
the  long  pendulous  appendages  over  the  beak  enormously 
developed.” 

The  Guinea  Fowl. 

The  domesticated  Guinea  fowl  is  now  believed  by  some 
naturalists  to  be  descended  om  the  Numida  ptilorliynca,  which 
inhabits  very  hot,  and,  in  parts,  extremely  arid  districts  in 
Eastern  Africa ; consequently  it  has  been  exposed  in  this 
country  to  extremely  different  conditions  of  life.  Nevertheless 
it  has  hardly  varied  at  all,  except  in  the  plumage  being  either 
paler  or  darker- coloured.  It  is  a singular  fact  that  this  bird 
varies  more  in  colour  in  the  West  Indies  and  on  the  Spanish 
Main,  under  a hot  though  humid  climate,  than  in  Europe.^^ 
The  Guinea  fowl  has  become  thoroughly  i’eral  in  Jamaica  and 
in  St.  Domingo, and  has  diminished  in  size;  the  legs  are 
black,  whereas  the  legs  of  the  aboriginal  African  bird  are 
said  to  be  grey.  This  small  change  is  worth  notice  on 
account  of  the  often-repeated  statement  that  all  feral  animals 
invariably  revert  in  every  character  to  their  original  type. 


E.  Blyth,  in  ‘Annals  and  Mag. 
of  Nat.  Hist.,’  1847,  vol.  xx.  p.  391. 

Roulin  makes  this  remark  in 
‘ Mem.  de  dir  ers  Savans,  I’Acad.  des 
Sciences,’  tom.  vi.,  1835,  p.  349.  Mr. 
Hill,  of  Spanish  Town,  in  a letter  to 
me,  describes  five  varieties  of  the 
Guinea  fowl  in  .Tan  aica.  I have  seen 


singular  pale-coloured  varieties  im- 
ported from  Barba  loes  and  Demerara. 

For  St.  Domingo,  see  M.  A. 
Salle,  in  ‘ Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.’  1857,  p. 
236.  Mr.  Hill  remarks  ro  me,  in  his 
letter,  on  the  colour  of  the  legs  of  tht 
feral  birds  in  Jamaica. 


Ghap.  VIII. 


CANARY  BIRD. 


31J 


The  Canary  Bird. 


As  this  bird  has  been  recently  domesticated,  namely,  within 
the  last  350  years,  its  variability  deserves  notice.  It  has  been 
crossed  with  nine  or  ten  other  species  of  Fringillidae,  and 
some  of  the  hybrids  are  almost  completely  fertile ; but  we 
have  no  evidence  that  any  distinct  breed  has  originated  from 
such  crosses.  Notwithstanding  the  modern  domestication  of 
the  canary,  many  varieties  have  been  produced ; even  before 
the  year  1718  a list  of  twenty-seven  varieties  was  published 
in  France,^®  and  in  1779  a long  schedule  of  the  desired  quali- 
ties was  printed  by  the  London  Canary  Society,  so  that 
methodical  selection  has  been  practised  during  a considerable 
period.  The  greater  number  of  the  varieties  differ  only  in 
colour  and  in  the  markings  of  their  plumage.  Some  breeds 
however,  differ  in  shape,  such  as  the  hooped  or  bowed  canaries, 
and  the  Belgian  canaries  with  their  much  elongated  bodies. 
Mr.  Brent^^  measured  one  of  the  latter  and  found  it  eight 
inches  in  length,  whilst  the  wild  canary  is  only  five  and  a 
quarter  inches  long.  There  are  top-knotted  canaries,  and  it  is 
a singular  fact  that,  if  two  top-knotted  birds  are  matched,  the 
young,  instead  of  having  very  fine  top-knots,  are  generally 
bald,  or  even  have  a wound  on  their  heads. It  would 
appear  as  if  the  top-knot  were  due  to  some  morbid  condition, 
which  is  increased  to  an  injurious  degree  when  two  birds  in 
this  state  are  paired.  There  is  a feather-footed  breed,  and 
another  with  a kind  of  frill  running  down  the  breast.  One 
other  character  deserves  notice  from  being  confined  to  one 
period  of  life,  and  from  being  strictly  inherited  at  the  same 
period ; namely,  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  in  prize  canaries 
being  black,  “ but  this  colour  is  retained  only  until  the  first 
moult;  once  moulted,  the  peculiarity  ceases.”^^  Canaries 


Ml’.  B.  P Brent,  ‘The  Canary, 
British  Finches,’  &c.,  pp.  21,  30. 

‘Cottage  Gardener,’  Dec.  11th, 
1855,  p.  184:  an  account  is  herp 
given  of  all  the  varieties.  For  many 
measurements  of  the  wild  birds,  see 
Mr.  E.  Vernon  Harcourt,  ibid.,  Dec. 
25th,  1855,  p.  223. 


Bechstein,  ‘ Naturgesch.  der  Stu- 
benvogel,’  1840,  s.  243  ; see  s.  252,  on 
the  inherited  song  of  Canary-birds. 
With  respect  to  their  baldness,  see 
also  W.  Kidd’s  ‘Treatise  on  Song- 
Birds.’ 

W.  Kidd’s  ‘Treatise  on  Song- 
Birds,’  p.  18 


312 


GOLD-FISH. 


Chap.  VIII. 


dirt’cr  much  in  disposition  and  character,  and  in  some  small 
degree  in  song.  They  produce  eggs  three  or  four  times  during 
the  year. 

Gold-Fish. 

Besidks  mamiTxals  and  birds,  only  a few  animals  belonging  to 
the  other  great  classes  have  been  domesticated;  but  to  show 
that  it  is  an  almost  universal  law  that  animals,  when  removed 
from  their  natural  conditions  of  life,  vary,  and  that  races  can 
be  formed  when  selection  is  applied,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a 
few  words  on  gold-fish,  bees,  and  silk-moths. 

Gold-fish  (^Gyprinus  auralus)  were  introduced  into  Europe 
only  two  or  three  centuries  ago ; but  they  have  been  kept  in 
confinement  from  an  ancient  period  in  China.  Mr.  Blyth 
suspects,  from  the  analogous  variation  of  other  fishes,  that 
golden-coloured  fish  do  not  occur  in  a state  of  nature.  These 
fishes  frequently  live  under  the  most  unnatural  conditions, 
and  their  variability  in  colour,  size,  and  in  some  important 
points  of  structure  is  very  great.  M.  Sauvigny  has  described 
and  given  coloured  drawings  of  no  less  than  eighty-nine 
varieties. Many  of  the  varieties,  however,  such  as  triple 
tail-fins,  &c.,  ought  to  be  called  monstrosities ; but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  draw  any  distinct  line  between  a variation  and  a 
monstrosity.  As  gold-fish  are  kept  for  ornament  or  curiosity, 
and  as  “ the  Chinese  are  just  the  people  to  have  secluded  a 
chance  variety  of  any  kind,  and  to  have  matched  and  paired 
from  it,”  it  might  have  been  predicted  that  selection 
would  have  been  largely  practised  in  the  formation  of  new 
breeds ; and  this  is  the  case.  In  an  old  Chinese  work  it  is 
said  that  fish  with  vermilion  scales  were  first  raised  in  con- 
finement during  the  Sung  dynasty  (which  commenced  a.d. 
960),  “and  now  they  are  cultivated  in  families  every  where  for 
the  sake  of  ornament.”  In  another  and  more  ancient  work,  i t is 
said  that  “ there  is  not  a household  where  the  gold-fish  is  not 
cultivated,  in  rivalry  as  to  its  colour,  and  as  a source  of 
profit,”  &c.®^  Although  many  breeds  exist,  it  is  a singular 

The  ‘Indian  Field,’  1858,  p.  255.  1858,  p.  255. 

Yarrell’s  ‘ British  Fishes,’ vol.  i.  W.  F.  Mayers,  ‘Chinese  Notes 

p.  319.  and  Qu.eries,’  Aug,  1868;  p.  123. 

Mr.  Blyth,  in  the  ‘ Indian  Field.’ 


Chap.  VIIL 


HIVE-BEES. 


31o^ 

fact  that  the  variations  are  often  not  inherited.  Sir  R. 
Heron  kept  many  of  these  fishes,  and  placed  all  the  de- 
formed ones,  namely,  those  destitute  of  dorsal  fins  and  tliose 
furnished  with  a double  anal  fin,  or  triple  tail,  in  a pond  by 
themselves  ; but  they  did  “ not  produce  a greater  proportion 
of  deformed  offspring  than  the  perfect  fishes.” 

Passing  over  an  almost  infinite  diversity  of  colour,  we  meet 
with  the  most  extraordinary  modifications  of  structure.  Tlius, 
out  of  about  two  dozen  specimens  bought  in  London,  Mr. 
Yarrell  observed  some  with  the  dorsal  fin  extending  along 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  back : others  with  this  fin 
reduced  to  only  five  or  six  rays  : and  one  with  no  dorsal  fin. 
The  anal  fins  are  sometimes  double,  and  the  tail  is  often  triple. 
This  latter  deviation  of  structure  seems  generally  to  occur 
“ at  the  expense  of  the  whole  or  part  of  some  other  fin ; ” 
but  Bory  de  Saint- Vincent  saw  at  Madrid  gold-fish  furnished 
with  a dorsal  fin  and  a triple  tail.  One  variety  is  characterised 
by  a hump  on  its  back  near  the  head ; and  the  Rev.  L. 
Jenyns  has  described  a most  singular  variety,  imported 
from  China,  almost  globular  in  form  like  a Diodon,  with  “ the 
fleshy  part  of  the  tail  as  if  entirely  cut  away  ? the  caudal  fin 
being  set  on  a little  behind  the  dorsal  and  immediately  above 
the  anal.”  In  this  fish  the  anal  and  caudal  fins  were  double ; 
the  anal  fin  being  attached  to  the  body  in  a vertical  line  ; 
the  eyes  also  were  enormously  large  and  protuberant. 


Hive-Bees. 

Bees  have  been  domesticated  from  an  ancient  period;  if 
indeed  their  state  can  be  considered  one  of  domestication,  for 
they  search  for  their  own  food,  with  the  exception  of  a little 
generally  given  to  them  during  the  winter.  Their  habitation 
is  a hive  instead  of  a hole  in  a tree.  Bees,  however,  have 

.■54  ( Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  May  25th,  ‘ Observations  in  Nat.  Hist.,’ 

184-2.  18-16,  p.  211.  Dr.  Gray  has  described, 

Varrell’s  ‘British  Fishes,’  vol.  i.  in  ‘Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’ 
p.  .619.  1860,  p.  151,  a nearly  similar  variety, 

‘ Diet.  Class.  d’Hist.  Nat.,’  tom.  but  destitute  of  a dorsal  fin. 

V.  p.  276. 


314 


HIVE-BEES. 


Chap.  VIII. 


been  transported  into  almost  every  quarter  of  the  world,  so 
that  climate  onglit  to  have  produced  whatever  direct  effect 
it  is  capable  of  producing.  It  is  frequently  asserted  that 
the  bees  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain  differ  in  size, 
colour,  and  temper ; and  Godron^®  says  that  they  are 
generally  larger  in  the  south  than  in  other  parts  of  F ranee  ; 
it  has  also  been  asserted  that  the  little  brown  bees  of  High 
Burgundy,  when  transported  to  La  Bresse  become  largo 
and  yellow  in  the  second  generation.  But  these  statements 
require  confirmation.  As  far  as  size  is  concerned,  it  is  known 
that  bees  produced  in  very  old  combs  are  smaller,  owing  to 
the  cells  having  become  smaller  from  the  successive  old 
cocoons.  The  best  authorities^®  concur  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Ligurian  lace  or  species,  present^  to  be 
mentioned,  distinct  breeds  do  not  exist  in  Britain  or  on  the 
Continent.  There  is,  however,  even  in  the  same  stock,  some 
variability  in  colour.  Thus,  Mr.  Woodbury  states,®®  that  he 
has  several  times  seen  queen  bees  of  the  common  kind  annu- 
lated  with  yellow-like  Ligurian  queens,  and  the  latter  dark- 
coloured  like  common  bees.  He  has  also  observed  variations 
in  the  colour  of  the  drones,  without  any  corresponding  differ- 
ence in  the  queens  or  workers  of  the  same  hive.  The  great 
apiarian,  Dzierzon,  in  answer  to  my  queries  on  this  subject, 
says,®^  that  in  Germany  bees  of  some  stocks  are  decidedly 
dark,  whilst  others  are  remarkable  for  their  yellow  colour. 
Bees  also  s&ein  to  differ  in  habits  in  different  districts,  for 
Dzierzon  adds,  “ If  many  stocks  with  their  offspring  are  more 
inclined  to  swarm,  whilst  others  are  richer  in  honey,  so  that 
some  bee-keepers  even  distinguish  between  swarming  and 
honey-gathering  bees,  this  is  a habit  which  has  become  second 
nature,  caused  by  the  customary  mode  of  keeping  the  bees 


‘De  I’Espfece,’  1859,  p.  459. 
With  respect  to  the  bees  of  Burgundy, 
sec  M.  Gerard,  art.  ‘ Espece,’  iu  ‘ Diet. 
Univers.  d’Hist.  Nat.’ 

See  a discussion  on  this  subject, 
in  answer  to  a question  of  mine,  in 
‘.Journal  of  Horticulture,’  1862,  pp. 
225-242;  also  Mr.  Bevan  Fox,  in 
litto,  1862,  p.  284 

This  excellent  observer  may  be 


implicitly  trusted ; see  ‘ Journal  of 
Horticulture,’  July  14th,  1863,  p.  39. 

‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Sept. 
9th,  1862,  p.  463;  see  also  Herr 
Kleine  on  same  subject  (Nov.  11th,  p. 
643),  who  sums  up,  that,  though 
there  is  some  variability  in  colour,  no 
constant  or  perceptible  differences  can 
be  detected  in  the  bees  of  Germany. 


Chap.  VIII. 


HIVE-BEES. 


815 


and  the  pasturage  of  the  district.  For  example,  '^vhat  a 
difference  in  this  respect  one  may  joerceive  to  exist  between 
the  bees  of  the  Liineburg  heath  and  those  of  this  country  ! ” 

“ Eemoving  an  old  queen  and  substituting  a young 

one  of  the  current  year  is  here  an  infallible  mode  of  keeping 
the  strongest  stock  from  swarming  and  preventing  drone- 
breeding ; whilst  the  same  means  if  adopted  in  Hanover 
would  certainly  be  of  no  avail.  ’ I procured  a hive  full  of 
dead  bees  from  Jamaica,  where  they  have  long  been  natural- 
ised, and,  on  carefully  comparing  them  under  the  microscope 
with  my  own  bees,  1 could  detect  not  a trace  of  difference. 

This  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  hive-bee,  wherever  kept, 
may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  great  difficulty,  or 
rather  impossibility,  of  bringing  selection  into  play  by  pairing 
particular  queens  and  drones,  for  these  insects  unite  only 
during  flight.  Nor  is  there  any  record,  with  a single  partial 
exception,  of  any  person  having  separated  and  bred  from  a 
hive  in  which  the  workers  presented  some  appreciable  differ- 
ence. In  order  to  form  a new  breed,  seclusion  from  other 
bees  would,  as  we  now  know,  be  indispensable ; for  since  the 
introduction  of  the  Ligurian  bee  into  Germany  and  England, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  drones  wander  at  least  two  miles 
from  their  own  hives,  and  often  cross  with  the  queens  of  the 
common  bee.®^  The  Ligurian  bee.  although  perfectly  fertile 
when  crossed  with  the  common  kind,  is  ranked  by  most 
naturalists  as  a distinct  species,  whilst  by  others  it  is  ranked 
as  a variety : but  this  form  need  not  here  be  noticed,  as  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the  product  of  domestica- 
tion. The  Egyptian  and  some  other  bees  are  likewise  ranked 
by  Dr.  Gerstacker,^^  but  not  by  other  highly  competent 
judges,  as  geographical  races ; he  grounds  his  conclusion 
in  chief  part  on  the  fact  that  in  certain  districts,  as  in  the 
Crimea  and  Ehodes,  they  var}^  so  much  in  colour,  that  the 
several  geographical  races  can  be  closely  connected  by  inter- 
mediate forms. 

I ha  ‘re  alluded  to  a single  instance  of  the  separation  and 

Mr.  Woodbury  has  published  ‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist., 

several  such  accounts  in  ‘Journal  of  3ril  scries,  vol  xi.  p.  339. 

Hortif  ulture,’  1361  and  1862. 


816 


SILK-MOTHS. 


CllAF.  Vfll, 


preservation  of  a particular  stock  of  bees.  Mr.  ] jowe  l^ro- 
cured  some  bees  from  a cottager  a few  miles  from  Edinl)urgh, 
and  perceived  that  they  differed  from  the  common  bee  in  the 
hairs  on  the  head  and  thorax  being  lighter  coloured  and  more 
profuse  in  quantity.  From  the  date  of  the  introduction  of 
the  Ligurian  bee  into  Great  Britain  we  may  feel  sure  that 
these  bees  liad  not  been  crossed  with  this  form.  Mr.  Lowe 
propagated  this  variety,  but  unfortunately  did  not  separate 
the  stock  from  his  other  bees,  and  after  three  generations  the 
new  character  was  almost  completely  lost.  Nevertheless,  as 
he  adds,  “ a great  number  of  the  bees  still  retain  traces, 
though  faint,  of  the  original  colony.”  This  case  shows  us 
what  could  probably  be  effected  by  careful  and  long- 
continued  selection  applied  exclusively  to  the  workers,  for, 
as  we  have  seen,  queens  and  drones  cannot  be  selected  and 


Silk-Moths. 


These  insects  are  in  several  respects  interesting  to  us,  more 
especially  because  they  have  varied  largely  at  an  early  period 
of  life,  and  the  variations  have  been  inherited  at  correspond- 
ing periods.  As  the  value  of  the  silk-moth  depends  entirely 
on  the  cocoon,  every  change  in  its  structure  and  qualities  has 
been  carefully  attended  to,  and  races  differing  much  in  the 
cocoon,  but  hardly  at  all  in  the  adult  state,  have  been  pro- 
duced. With  the  races  of  most  other  domestic  animals,  the 
young  resemble  each  other  closely,  whilst  the  adults  differ 
much. 

It  would  be  useless,  even  if  it  were  possible,  to  describe  all 
the  many  kinds  of  silk -worms.  Several  distinct  species  exist 
in  India  and  China  which  produce  useful  silk,  and  some  of 
these  are  capable  of  freely  crossing  with  the  common  silk- 
moth,  as  has  been  recently  ascertained  in  France.  Captain 
Hutton  states  that  throughout  the  world  at  least  six  species 
have  been  domesticated ; and  he  believes  that  the  silk-moths 
reared  in  Europe  belong  to  two  or  three  species.  This,  how- 

‘ The  Cottage  Gardener,’  May,  ‘ Transact.  Entoniolog.  Soc.,’  3rd 

1800,  p.  110;  and  ditto  in ‘Journal  series,  vol.  iii.  pp.  143-173,  and  pp. 
of  Ilort.,’  1862,  p.  242.  295-331. 


Chap.  VIII. 


THEIR  DIFFERENCES. 


317 


ever,  is  not  the  opinion  of  several  capable  judges  who  have 
particular!}^  attended  to  the  cultivation  of  this  insect  in 
France ; and  hardly  accords  with  some  facts  presently  to  he 
given. 

The  common  silk-moth  {Bomhyx  mori)  was  brought  to  Con- 
stantinople in  the  sixth  century,  whence  it  was  carried  into 
Italy,  and  in  1494  into  France.®®  Everything  has  been 
favourable  for  the  variation  of  this  insect.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  domesticated  in  China  as  long  ago  as  2700  b.c. 
It  has  been  kept  under  unnatuial  and  diversified  conditions 
of  life,  and  has  been  transported  into  many  countries.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  nature  of  the  food  given  to  the 
caterpillar  influences  to  a certain  extent  the  character  of  the 
hreed.®'^  Disuse  has  apparently  aided  in  checking  the  develop- 
ment of  the  wings.  But  the  most  important  element  in  the 
production  of  the  many  now  existing,  much  modified  races, 
no  doubt  has  been  the  close  attention  which  has  long  been 
applied  in  many  countries  to  every  promising  variation. 
The  care  taken  in  Europe  in  the  selection  of  the  best  cocoons 
and  moths  for  breeding  is  notorious,®*  and  the  production  of 
eggs  is  followed  as  a distinct  trade  in  parts  of  France.  I 
have  made  inquiries  through  Dr.  Falconer,  and  am  assured 
that  in  India  the  natives  are  equally  careful  in  the  process 
of  selection.  In  China  the  production  of  eggs  is  confined  to 
certain  favourable  districts,  and  the  raisers  are  precluded  by 
law  from  producing  silk,  so  that  their  whole  attention  may 
be  necessarily  given  up  to  this  one  object.®^ 

The  following  details  on  the  differences  between  the  several 
breeds  are  taken,  when  not  stated  to  the  contrary,  from  M.  Eobinet’s 
excellent  work,'^®  which  bears  every  sign  of  care  and  large  experi- 
ence. The  eggs  in  the  different  races  vary  in  colour,  in  shape 
(being  round,  elliptic  or  oval),  and  in  size.  The  eggs  laid  in  June 
in  the  south  of  France,  and  in  July  in  the  central  provinces,  do  not 


Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espece,’ 1S59,  tom.  xS'ee,  for  instance,  M.  A., do  Qnatre- 

i.  p.  460.  The  antiquity  of  the  silk-  fages’  ‘Etudes  sur  les  Maladies  actu- 

worm  in  China  is  given  on  the  elles  du  Ver  k Soie,’  1859,  p.  101. 

authority  of  Stanislas  Julien.  ‘ My  authorities  for  the  statements 

See  the  remarks  of  Prof.  West-  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on  Selec- 
wood,  Gen.  Hearsey,  and  others,  at  tion. 

the  meeting  of  the  Entomolog.  Soc.  of  ‘ Manuel  de  I’Educateur  de  Vers 

London,  July,  1361.  4 Soie,’  1848. 


318 


SILK-MOTIIS. 


Chap.  VIII. 


liatcli  until  the  following  spring;  and  it  is  in  vain,  says  M.  Eohinet, 
to  expose  them  to  a temperature  gradually  raised,  in  order  that  the 
caterpillai'  may  bo  quickly  developed.  Yet  occasionally,  without 
any  known  cause,  batches  of  eggs  are  produced,  which  immediately 
begin  to  undergo  the  proper  changes,  and  are  hatched  in  from 
twenty  to  thirty  days.  From  these  and  some  other  analogous  facts 
it  may  be  concluded  that  the  Trevoltini  silkworms  of  Italy,  of  which 
the  caterpillars  are  hatched  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days,  do  not 
necessarily  form,  as  has  been  maintained,  a distinct  species. 
Although  the  breeds  which  live  in  temperate  countries  produce 
eggs  which  cannot  be  immediately  hatched  by  artificial  heat,  yet 
v.'hen  they  are  removed  to  and  reared  in  a hot  country  they 
gradually  acquire  the  character  of  quick  development,  as  in  the 
Trevoltini  races.''’ 

Caterpillars. — These  vary  greatly  in  size  and  colour.  The  skin 
is  generally  white,  sometimes  mottled  with  black  or  grey,  and 
occasionally  quite  black.  The  colour,  however,  as  M.  Eobinet 
asserts,  is  not  constant,  even  in  perfectly  pure  breeds ; except  in 
the  race  tigree,  so  called  from  being  marked  with  transverse  black 
stripes.  As  the  general  colour  of  the  caterpillar  is  not  correlated 
with  that  of  the  silk,'^^  this  character  is  disregarded  by  cultivators, 
and  has  not  been  fixed  by  selection.  Captain  Hutton,  in  the  paper 
before  referred  to,  has  argued  with  much  force  that  the  dark  tiger- 
like marks,  which  so  frequently  appear  during  the  later  moults  in 
the  caterpillars  of  various  breeds,  are  due  to  reversion ; for  the 
caterpillars  of  several  allied  wild  species  of  Bombyx  are  marked 
and  coloured  in  this  manner.  He  separated  some  caterpillars  with 
the  tiger-like  marks,  and  in  the  succeeding  spring  (pp.  149,  298) 
nearly  all  the  caterpillars  reared  from  them  were  dark- brindled,  and 
the  tints  became  still  darker  in  the  third  generation.  The  moths 
reared  from  these  caterpillars  also  became  darker,  and  resembled 
in  colouring  the  wild  B.  huHoni.  On  this  view  of  the  tiger-like 
marks  being  due  to  reversion,  the  persistency  with  which  they  are 
transmitted  is  intelligible. 

Several  years  ago  Mrs.  Whitby  took  great  pains  in  breeding 
silkworms  on  a large  scale,  and  she  informed  me  that  some  of  her 
caterpillars  had  dark  eyebrows.  This  is  probably  the  first  step  in 
reversion  towards  the  tiger-like  marks,  and  I was  curious  to  know 
whether  so  trifling  a character  would  be  inherited.  At  my  request 


Robinet,  ibid.,  pp.  12,  318.  I 
may  a Id  that  the  eggs  of  N.  American 
silkworms  taken  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands  produced  moths  at  very  irre- 
gular periods ; and  the  moths  thus 
raised  yielded  eggs  which  were  even 
worse  in  this  respect.  Some  were 
hatched  in  ten  days,  and  others  not 
until  after  the  lapse  of  many  months. 
No  doubt  a regular  early  character 


would  ultimately  have  been  acquired. 
See  review  in  ‘Athenajum,’  1844,  ]». 
329,  of  J.  Jarves’  ‘Scenes  in  th.e 
Sandwich  Islands.’ 

‘ The  Art  of  rearing  Silk-worms,’ 
translated  from  Count  Dandolo,  1825, 
p.  23. 

‘Transact.  Enl.  Soc.,’ ut  supra, 
pp.  153,  308. 


Chap.  VIII. 


THEIR  DIFFERENCES. 


319 


she  separated  in  1848  twenty  of  these  caterpillars,  and  having  kept 
the  moths  separate,  bred  from  them.  Of  the  many  caterpillars 
thus  reared,  “every  one  without  exception  had  eyebrows,  some 
darker  and  more  decidedly  marked  than  the  others,  but  all  had 
eyebrows  more  or  less  plainly  visible.”  Black  caterpillars  occasion- 
ally appear  amongst  those  of  the  common  kind,  but  in  so  N^ariable  a 
manner,  that,  according  to  M.  Robinet,  the  same  race  will  one  year 
e.^clusively  produce  white  caterpillars,  and  the  next  year  many 
black  ones ; nevertheless,  I have  been  informed  by  M.  A.  Bossi  of 
Geneva,  that,  if  these  black  caterpillars  are  separately  bred  from, 
they  reproduce  the  same  colour ; but  the  cocoons  and  moths  reared 
from  them  do  not  present  any  difference. 

The  caterpillar  in  Europe  ordinarily  moults  four  times  before 
passing  into  the  cocoon  stage ; but  there  are  races  “ a trois  mues,” 
and  the  Trevoltini  race  likewise  moults  only  thrice.  It  might  have 
been  thought  that  so  important  a physiological  difference  would 
not  have  arisen  under  domestication;  but  M.  Robinet states  that, 
on  the  one  hand,  ordinary  caterpillars  occasionally  spin  their 
cocoons  after  only  three  moults,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  “ presquo 
toutes  les  races  a trois  nines,  que  nous  avons  experimentees,  ont 
fait  quatre  mues  a la  seconde  ou  a la  troisieme  annee,  ce  qui 
semble  prouver  qu’il  a suffi  de  les  placer  dans  des  conditions 
favorables  pour  leur  rendre  une  faculte  qu’elles  avaient  perdue  sous 
des  influences  moins  favorables.” 

Cocoons. — The  caterpillar  in  changing  into  the  cocoon  loses  about 
50  per  cent,  of  its  weight;  but  the  amount  of  loss  differs  in  different 
breeds,  and  this  is  of  importance  to  the  cultivator.  The  cocoon  in 
the  different  races  presents  characteristic  differences;  being  largo 
or  small ; — nearly  spherical  with  no  constriction,  as  in  the  Race  de 
Loriol,  or  cylindrical,  with  either  a deep  or  slight  constriction  in  the 
middle;  with  the  two  ends,  or  with  one  end  alone,  more  or  less 
pointed.  The  silk  varies  in  fineness  and  quality,  and  in  being 
nearly  white,  but  of  two  tints,  or  yellow.  Generally  the  colour  of 
the  silk  is  not  strictly  inherited  : but  in  the  chapter  on  Selection  I 
shall  give  a curious  account  how,  in  the  course  of  sixty-five  genera- 
tions, the  number  of  yellow  cocoons  in  one  breed  has  been  reduced 
in  France  from  one  hundred  to  thirty-five  in  the  thousand. 
According  to  Robinet,  the  white  race,  called  Sina,  by  careful 
selection  during  the  last  seventy-five  years,  “ est  arrivee  a un  tel 
etat  de  purete,  qu’on  ne  voit  pas  un  seul  cocon  jaune  dans  des 
millions  de  cocons  blancs.”  Cocoons  are  sometimes  formed,  as  is 
well  known,  entirely  destitute  of  silk,  which  yet  produce  moths ; 
unfortunately  Mrs.  Whitby  was  prevented  by  an  accident  from 
ascertaining  whether  this  character  would  prove  hereditary. 

Adult  stage. — I can  find  no  account  of  any  constant  difference  in 
the  moths  of  the  most  distinct  races.  Mrs.  AVhitby  assured  roe 
tliat  there  was  none  in  the  several  kinds  bred  by  her;  and  I have 


Robinet,  ibid,,  p.  317 


” Robinet,  ibid.,  pp.  306-317, 


320 


SILK-MOTHS. 


Chap.  VIIL 


received  a similar  statement  from  the  eminent  naturalist,  ]\L  de 
Quatrefages.  Captain  Hutton  also  says'^*^  that  the  moths  of  all 
kinds  vary  much  in  colour,  but  in  nearly  the  same  inconstant 
manner.  Considering  how  much  the  cocoons  in  the  several  races 
differ,  this  fact  is  of  interest,  and  may  probably  be  accounted  for 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  fluctuating  variability  of  colour  in  the 
caterpillar,  namely,  that  there  has  been  no  motive  for  selecting  and 
perpetuating  any  particular  variation. 

The  males  of  the  wild  Bombycidae  fly  swiftly  in  the  day-time 
and  evening,  but  the  females  are  usually  very  sluggish  and 
inactive.”  In  several  moths  of  this  family  the  females  have 
abortive  wings,  but  no  instance  is  known  of  the  males  being 
incapable  of  flight,  for  in  this  case  the  species  could  hardly  have 
been  perpetuated.  In  the  silk-moth  both  sexes  have  imperfect, 
crumpled  wings,  and  are  incapable  of  flight ; but  still  there  is  a 
trace  of  the  characteristic  difference  in  the  two  sexes ; for  though, 
on  comparing  a number  of  males  and  females,  I could  detect  no 
difference  in  the  development  of  their  wings,  yet  I was  assured  by 
Mrs.  Whitby  that  the  males  of  the  moths  bred  by  her  used  their 
wings  more  than  the  females,  and  could  flutter  downwards,  though 
never  upwards.  She  also  states  that,  hen  the  females  first 
emerge  from  the  cocoon,  their  wings  are  less  expanded  than  those 
of  the  male.  The  degree  of  imperfection,  however,  in  the  wings 
varies  much  in  different  races  and  under  different  circumstances. 
M.  Quatrefages"^^  says  that  he  has  seen  a number  of  moths  with 
their  wings  reduced  to  a third,  fourth,  or  tenth  part  of  their  normal 
dimensions,  and  even  to  mere  short  straight  stumps':  ''il  me  semble 
qu’il  y a la  un  veritable  arret  de  developpement  partiel.”  On  the 
other  hand,  he  describes  the  female  moths  of  the  Andre  Jean  breed 
as  having  “ leurs  ailes  larges  et  etalees.  Un  seul  presente  quelques 
courbures  irregulieres  et  des  plis  anormaux.”  As  moths  and  butter- 
flies of  all  kinds  reared  from  wild  caterpillars  under  confinement 
often  have  crippled  wings,  the  same  cause,  whatever  it  may  be,  has 
probably  acted  on  silk-moths,  but  the  disuse  of  their  wings  during 
so  many  generations  has,  it  may  be  suspected,  likewise  come  into 
play. 

The  moths  of  many  breeds  fail  to  glue  their  eggs  to  the  surface 
on  which  they  are  laid,’’'*  but  this  proceeds,  according  to  Capt. 
Hutton,*^°  merely  from  the  glands  of  the  ovipositor  being  weakened. 

As  with  other  long- domesticated  animals,  the  instincts  of  the 
silk-moth  have  suffered.  The  caterpillars,  when  placed  on  a mul- 
berry-tree, often  commit  the  strange  mistake  of  devouring  the 
base  of  the  leaf  on  which  they  are  feeding,  and  consequently  fall 


’’6  ‘ Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,’  ut  supra, 
p.  317. 

’’’  Stephen’s  Illustrations,  ‘ Haus- 
tellata,’  vol.  ii.  p.  35.  See  also  Capt. 
Hutton,  ‘ Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,’  ibid., 
p.  152. 


’’8  ‘ Etudes  sur  les  Maladies  du  Ver 
a Soie,’  1859,  pp.  304,  209. 

’■9  Quatrefages,  ‘ Etudes,’  &c.,  p. 
214. 

80  ‘ Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,’  ut  supra, 
p.  151. 


Chap.  VIII. 


THEIK  DIFFERENCES. 


821 


clown ; but  they  are  capable,  according  to  M.  Robiriet,®^  of  again 
crawling  up  the  trunk.  Even  this  capacity  sometimes  fails,  for 
M.  Martins  placed  some  caterpillars  on  a tree,  and  those  which 
tell  were  not  able  to  remount  and  perished  of  hunger ; they  were 
even  incapable  of  passing  from  leaf  to  leaf. 

Some  of  the  modifications  which  the  silk  moth  has  undergone 
stand  in  coi-relation  with  one  another.  Thus,  the  eggs  of  the  moths 
which  produce  wdiite  cocoons  and  of  those  which  produce  yellow 
cocoons  differ  slightly  in  tint.  The  abdominal  feet,  also,  of  the 
cateri^illars  which  yield  white  cocoons  are  always  white,  whilst 
those  which  give  yellow  cocoons  are  invariably  yellow.®^  We  have 
seen  that  the  caterpillars  with  dark  tiger-like  stripes  produce 
moths  which  are  more  darkly  shaded  than  other  moths.  It  seems 
well  established  that  in  France  the  caterpillars  of  the  races  which 
produce  white  silk,  and  certain  black  caterpillars,  have  resisted, 
better  than  other  races,  the  disease  which  has  recently  devastated 
the  silk-districts.  Lastly,  the  races  differ  constitutionally,  for  some 
do  not  succeed  so  well  under  a temperate  climate  as  others ; and  a 
damp  soil  does  not  equally  injure  all  the  races.^^ 

From  these  various  facts  we  learn  that  silk-moths,  like  the 
higher  animals,  vary  greatly  under  long-continued  domes- 
tication. We  learn  also  the  more  important  fact  that  varia- 
tions may  occur  at  various  periods  of  life,  and  be  inherited  at 
a corresponding  period.  And  finally  we  see  that  insects  are 
amenable  to  the  great  principle  of  Selection. 

81  ‘ Manuel  de  Pflducateur,’  &c.,  12,  209,  214. 

p.  26.  Kobinet,  ‘ Manuel,’  &c.,  p.  303, 

82  Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espeee,’  p.  462.  .85  Kobinet,  ibid.,  p.  15. 

83  Quatrefages,  ‘ Etudes,’  &c,,  pp. 


22 


322 


CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CULTIVATED  PLANTS  : CEREAL  AND  CULINARY  PLANTS. 
PK]|]LIMINAEY  HEMAEKS  on  the  number  and  parentage  oh 

CULTIVATED  PLANTS — FIRST  STEPS  IN  CULTIVATION — GEOGRAPHICAL 
DISTRIBU'IION  OF  CULTIVA'l'ED  PLANTS. 

CEREALIA. — DOUBTS  ON  the  number  of  species. wheat;  varieties 

OP — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY — CHANGED  HABITS — SEl.ECTION — ANCIENT 

HISrORY  OF  THE  VARIETIES. MAIZE:  GREAT  VARIATION  (IF — DIRECT 

ACTION  OP  CLIMATE  ON. 

CUUNARY  PLAN'l'S. — cabbages:  varieties  of,  in  foliage  and 

STEMS,  BUT  NOT  IN  OTHEit  PARTS — PARENTAGE  OF— OTHER  SPECIES  OF 

BRASSICA. PI  AS  .'  AiMOUNT  OP  DIFFEBENCE  IN  THE  SEVERAL  KINDS, 

CHIEFLY  .IN  THE  PODS  AND  SEED — SOME  VARIETIES  CONSTANT,  SOME 

HIGHLY  variable  — DO  NOT  INTERCROSS. BE\NS. POTATOES  : 

NUMEROUS  VARIETIES  OF — DIFFERING  LITTLE,  EXCEPT  IN  THE  TUBERS — 
CHARACTERS  INHERITED. 

I SHALL  not  enter  into  so  much  detail  on  the  variability  of 
cultivated  plants,  as  in  the  case  of  domesticated  animals. 
The  subject  is  involved  in  much  difficulty.  Botanists  have 
generally  neglected  cultivated  varieties,  as  beneath  their 
notice.  In  several  cases  the  wild  prototype  is  unknown  or 
doubtfully  known  ; and  in  other  cases  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
distinguish  between  escaped  seedlings  and  truly  wild  plants, 
so  that  there  is  no  safe  standard  of  comparison  by  which  to 
judge  of  an}"  supposed  amount  of  change.  Not  a few  bota- 
nists believe  that  several  of  our  anciently  cultivated  plants 
have  become  so  profoundly  modified  that  it  is  not  possible 
now  to  recognise  their  aboriginal  parent-forms.  Equally 
perplexing  are  the  doubts  whether  some  of  them  are  de- 
scended from  one  species,  or  from  several  inextricably  com- 
mingled by  crossing  and  variation.  Variations  often  pass 
into,  and  cannot  be  distinguished  from,  monstrosities ; and 
monstrosities  are  of  little  significance  for  our  purpose.  Many 
varieties  are  propagated  solely  by  grafts,  buds,  layers,  bulbs, 
c't;c.,  and  frequently  it  is  not  known  how  far  their  peculiarities 
can  be  transmitted  by  seminal  generation.  Nevertheless. 


Chap.  IX. 


PRELIMINAEY  REMARKS 


325 


some  facts  of  value  can  be  gleaned  : and  other  facts  will 
hereafter  be  incidentally  given.  One  chief  object  in  the 
two  following  chapters  is  to  show  how  many  characters  in 
our  cultivated  plants  have  become  variable. 

Before  entering  on  details  a few  general  remarks  on  the 
origin  of  cultivated  plants  may  be  introduced.  M.  Alph.  De 
Candolle^  in  an  admirable  discussion  on  this  subject,  in  which 
he  displays  a wonderful  amount  of  knowledge,  gives  a list  of 
157  of  the  most  useful  cultivated  plants.  Of  these  he 
believes  that  85  are  almost  certainly  known  in  their  wild 
state ; but  on  this  head  other  competent  judges^  entertain 
great  doubts.  Of  40  of  them,  the  origin  is  admitted  by  M. 
De  Candolle  to  be  doubtful,  either  from  a certain  amount  of 
dissimilarity  which  they  present  when  compared  with  their 
nearest  allies  in  a'Vild  state,  or  from  the  probability  of  the 
latter  not  being  truly  wild  plants,  but  seedlings  escaped 
from  culture.  Of  tlie  entire  157,  32  alone  are  ranked  by 
M.  De  Candolle  as  quite  unknown  in  .their  aboriginal  con- 
dition. But  it  should  be  observed  that  he  does  not  include 
in  his  list  several  plants  which  present  ill-defined  characters, 
namely,  the  various  forms  of  pumpkins,  millet,  sorghum, 
kidney-bean,  dolichos,  capsicum,  and  indigo.  Nor  does  he 
include  flowers ; and  several  of  the  more  anciently  cultivated 
flowers,  such  as  certain  roses,  the  common  Imperial  lily,  the 
tuberose,  and  even  the  lilac,  are  said^  not  to  be  known  in  the 
wild  state. 

From  the  relative  numbers  above  given,  and  from  other 
arguments  of  much  weight,  M.  De  Candolle  concludes  that 
plants  have  rarely  been  so  much  modified  by  culture  that 
they  cannot  be  identified  with  their  wild  prototypes.  But 
on  this  view,  considering  that  savages  probably  would  not 
have- chosen  rare  plants  for  cultivation,  that  useful  plants  are 
generally  conspicuous,  and  that  they  could  not  have  been 
the  inhabitants  of  deserts  or  of  remote  and  recently  discovered 


* ‘Geogvaphie  botanique  raisonnee,’ 
1855,  pp.  810  to  991. 

^ Review  by  Mr.  Bentham  in  ‘ Hort. 
Journal,’  vol.  ix.  1855,  p.  133,  entitled, 
‘ Historical  Notes  on  cultivated 


Plants,’  by  Dr.  A.  Pargioni-Tozzetti. 
See  also  ‘Edinburgh  Review,’  1866, 
p.  510. 

® ‘ Hist.  Notes,’  as  above,  by  Tar- 
gioni-Tozzetti. 


324 


CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 


Chap  IX. 


islands,  it  appears  strange  to  me  that  so  many  of  onr  culti- 
vated plants  should  he  still  unknown  or  only  doubtfully 
known  in  the  wild  state.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of 
tliese  plants  have  been  profoundly  modified  by  culture,  the 
diffeulty  disappears.  The  difficulty  would  also  bo  removed 
if  they  have  been  exterminated  during  the  progress  of  civili- 
sation ; but  M.  De  Candolle  has  shown  that  this  probably  has 
seldom  oceurred.  As  soon  as  a plant  was  eultivated  in  any 
country,  the  half-civilised  inhabitants  would  no  longer  have 
need  to  search  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  for  it,  and  thus 
lead  to  its  extirpation ; and  even  if  this  did  occur  during  a 
famine,  dormant  seeds  would  be  left  in  the  ground.  In 
tropical  countries  the  wild  luxuriance  of  nature,  as  was  long 
ago  remarked  by  Humboldt,  ovei  powers  the  feeble  efforts  of 
man.  In  anciently  civilised  temperate  countries,  where  the 
whole  face  of  the  land  has  been  greatly  changed,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  some  plants  have  become  extinct ; never- 
theless De  Candolle  has  shown  that  all  the  plants  historically 
known  to  have  been  first  cultivated  in  Europe  still  exist  here 
in  the  wild  state. 

MM.  l.oiseleur-Deslongchamps  and  De  CandoUe  have  re- 
marked that  our  cultivated  plants,  more  especially  the  cereals, 
must  originally  have  existed  in  nearly  their  present  state  ; for 
otherwise  they  would  not  have  been  noticed  and  valued  as 
objects  of  food.  But  these  authors  apparently  have  not  con- 
sidered the  many  accounts  given  by  travellers  of  the  wretched 
food  collected  by  savages.  I have  read  an  account  of  the 
savages  of  Australia  cooking,  during  a dearth,  many  vegetables 
in  various  ways,  in  the  hopes  of  rendering  them  innocuous  and 
more  nutritious.  Dr.  Hooker  found  the  half-starved  in- 
habitants of  a village  in  Sikhim  suffering  greatly  from 
having  eaten  arum-roots,^  which  they  had  pounded  and  left 
for  several  days,  to  ferment,  so  as  partially  to  destroy  their 
poisonous  nature ; and  he  adds  that  they  cooked  and  ate  many 

■*  ‘ Considerations  sur  les  Cereales,’  des  espfeces  offrant  a I’origjne  meme 
1342,  p.  87.  ‘Geograjihie  But.,’  1855,  iin  avantage  incontestable.” 
p.  930.  “ Plus  on  suppose  I’agvicul-  ^ Dr.  Hooker  has  given  me  this 

ture  ancienne  et  remontant  a une  information.  See,  also,  his  ‘ Himalayan 
^poque  d’ignorance,  plus  il  est  probable  Journals,’  1854,  vol.  ii.  p 49. 
que  les  cultivateurs  avaient  choisi 


Chap.  IX. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


325 


otlier  deleterious  plants.  Sir  Andrew  Smith  informs  me  that 
in  South  Africa  a large  number  of  fruits  and  succulent  leaves, 
and  especially  roots,  are  used  in  times  of  scarcity.  Tlie 
natis^es,  indeed,  know  the  properties  of  a long  catalogue  of 
plants,  some  having  been  found  during  famines  to  be  eatable, 
others  injurious  to  health,  or  even  destructive  to  life.  He 
mot  a party  of  Baquanas  who,  having  been  expelled  by  the 
conquering  Zulus,  had  lived  for  years  on  any  roots  or  leaves 
which  alforded  some  little  nutriment  and  distended  their 
stomachs,  so  as  to  relieve  the  pangs  of  hunger.  They  looked 
like  walking  skeletons,  and  suffered  fearfully  from  con- 
stipation. Sir  Andrew  Smith  also  informs  me  that  on  such 
occasions  the  natives  observe  as  a guide  for  themselves,  what 
the  wild  animals,  especially  baboons  and  monlce3's,  eat. 

From  innumerable  experiments  made  through  dire  ne- 
cessity by  the  savages  of  every  land,  with  the  results  handed 
down  by  tradition,  the  nutritious,  stimulating,  and  medicinal 
properties  of  the  most  unpromising  plants  Avere  probably 
first  discoA’ered.  It  appears,  for  instance,  at  first  an  in- 
explicable fact  that  untutored  man,  in  three  distant  quarters 
of  the  world,  should  haAm  discovered,  amongst  a host  of 
native  plants,  tliat  the  leaves  of  the  tea-plant  and  niattee, 
and  the  berries  of  the  coffee,  all  included  a stimulating  and 
nutritious  essence,  now  knoAvn  to  be  chemically  the  same. 
We  can  also  see  that  savages  suffering  from  severe  con- 
stipation would  naturally  observe  whether  any  of  the  roots 
which  they  deAmured  acted  as  aperients.  We  probably  owe 
our  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  almost  all  plants  to  man 
liaA'ing  originally  existed  in  a barbarous  state,  and  having 
been  often  compelled  by  severe  want  to  try  as  food  almost 
eA^ery thing  which  he  could  chew  and  swalloAV. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  habits  of  savages  in  many 
quarters  of  the  world,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  our 
cereal  plants  originally  existed  in  their  present  state  so 
A’^alnable  to  man.  Let  us  look  to  one  continent  alone,  namely, 
Africa : Barfh®  states  that  the  slaves  over  a large  part  of  the 

® ‘Travels  in  Central  Africa,’  Eng.  ii.  p[j.  29,  265,  270  Livingstone’s 
Iranslat.  vol.  i.  pp.  529  and  390;  voi.  ‘Travels,’  p.  551. 


326 


CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


oeiitidl  region  regularly  collect  the  seeds  of  a wild  grass,  the 
Penniseturib  disticlmm ; in  another  district  he  saw  women 
collecting  the  seeds  of  a Poa  by  swinging  a sort  of  basket 
through  the  rieh  meadow-land.  Near  T^ete,  Livingstone 
observed  the  natives  collecting  the  seeds  of  a wild  grass,  and 
farther  south,  as  Andersson  informs  me,  the  natives  largely 
use  the  seed  of  a grass  of  about  the  size  of  canary-seed,  which 
they  boil  in  water.  They  eat  also  the  roots  of  certain  reeds, 
and  every  one  has  read  of  the  Bushmen  prowling  about  and 
digging  up  with  a fire-hardened  stake  various  roots.  Similar 
fa,cts  with  respect  to  the  collection  of  seeds  of  wild  grasses  in 
other  parts  of  the  world  eould  be  given. ^ 

Accustomed  as  we  are  to  our  excellent  vegetables  and 
luscious  fruits,  we  can  hardly  persuade  ourselves  that  the 
stringy  roots  of  the  wild  carrot  and  parsnip,  or  the  little 
shoots  of  the  wild  asparagus,  or  crabs,  sloes,  &c.,  should  ever 
have  been  valued ; yet,  from  what  we  know  of  the  habits  of 
Australian  and  South  African  savages,  we  need  feel  no  doubt 
on  this  head.  The  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  during  the 
Stone  period  largely  colleeted  wild  crabs,  sloes,  bullaces,  hips 
of  roses,  elderberries,  beechmast,  and  other  wild  berries  and 
fruit. ^ Jemmy  Button,  a Fuegian  on  board  the  Beagle, 
remarked  to  me  that  the  poor  and  acid  black-currants  of 
J'ierra  del  Fuego  were  too  sweet  for  his  taste. 

The  savage  inhabitants  of  each  land,  having  found  out  by 
many  and  hard  trials  what  plants  were  useful,  or  could  be  , 
rendered  useful  by  various  cooking  processes,  would  after  a 
time  take  the  first  step  in  cultivation  by  planting  them  near 
their  usual  abodes.  Livingstone^  states  that  the  savage 
Batokas-  sometimes  left  wild  fruit-trees  standing  in  their 
gardens,  and  occasionally  even  planted  them,  “ a practice 


’’  For  instance,  in  both  North  and 
South  America.  Mr.  Edgeworth 
(‘Journal  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.,’  vol  vi. 
Bot.,  1862,  p.  181)  states  that  in  the 
deserts  of  the  Punjab  poor  women 
sweep  up,  “ by  a whisk  into  straw 
baskets,”  the  seeds  of  four  genera  of 
grasses,  namely,  of  Agrostis,  Panicum, 
Cenchrus,  and  Pennisetum,  as  well  as 
the  seeds  of  four  other  genera  beloug- 


ing  to  distinct  families. 

® Prof.  0.  Heor,  ‘Die  Pflanzen  der 
Pfahlbauten,  1866,  aus  dem  Neujahr. 
Naturforsch.  Gesellschaft,’  1866;  ami 
Dr.  H.  Christ,  in  Riitimeyer’s  ‘ Die 
Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,’  1861,  s.  226. 

® ‘ Travels,’  ]>.  565.  Du  Chaillu, 
‘Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africu,’ 
1861,  p.  445. 


Chap.  IX. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


327 


seen  nowhere  else  amongst  the  natives.”  But  Du  Chaillu 
saw  a palm  and  some  other  wild  fruit-trees  which  had  been 
planted;  and  these  trees  were  considered  private  property. 
The  next  step  in  cultivation,  and  this  would  require  but  little 
forethought,  would  be  to  sow  the  seeds  of  useful  plants ; 
and  as  the  soil  near  the  hovels  of  the  natives^®  would  often  1)g 
in  some  degree  manured,  improved  varieties  would  sooner  or 
later  arise.'  Or  a wild  and  unusually  good  variety  of  a native 
plant  might  attract  the  attention  of  some  wise  old  savage ; 
and  he  would  transplant  it,  or  sow  its  seed.  'That  superior 
varieties  of  wild  fruit-trees  occasionally  are  found  is  certain, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  American  species  of  hawthorns,  plums, 
cherries,  grapes,  and  hickories,  specified  by  Professor  Asa 
Gray.^^  Downing  also  refers  to  certain  wild  varieties  of  the 
hickory,  as  being  “ of  much  larger  size  and  finer  flavour  than 
the ‘common  species.”  I have  referred  to  American  fruit-trees, 
because  we  are  not  in  this  case  troubled  with  doubts  whether 
or  not  the  varieties  are  seedlings  which  have  escaped  from 
cultivation.  Transplanting  any  superior  variety,  or  sowing 
its  seeds,  hardly  implies  more  forethought  than  might  be 
expected  at  an  early  and  rude  period  of  civilisation.  Even 
the  Australian  barbarians  “ have  a law  that  no  plant  bearing 
seeds  is  to  be  dug  up  after  it  has  flowered and  Sir  G Grrey^'^ 
never  saw  this  law,  evidently  framed  for  the  preservation  ol 
the  plant,  violated.  We  see  the  same  spirit  in  the  super- 
stitious belief  of  the  Euegians,  that  killing  water-fowl  whilst 
very  young  will  be  followed  by  “ much  rain,  snow,  blow 
inuchA  I may  add,  as  showing  forethought  in  the  lowest 
barbarians,  that  the  Euegians  when  they  find  a stranded 
whale  bury  large  portions  in  the  sand,  and  during  the  often- 
recurrent  famines  travel  from  great  distances  for  the  remnants 
of  the  half-putrid  mass. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  we  do  not  owe  a single 

In  Tierra  del  Fuego  the  spot  1845,  p.  261. 
waere  wigwams  had  formerly  stood  ‘ Journals  of  Expeditions  in  Avis- 

could  be  distinguished  at  a great  . tralia,’  1841,  vol.  ii.  p.  292.  ' 
distance  by  the  bright  green  tint  of  Darwin’s  ‘ Journal  of  Researches,’ 

the  native  vegetation.  1845,  p.  215. 

" ‘American  Acad,  of  Arts  and  *■*  De  Candolle  has  tabulated  the 
Sciences,’  April  10th,  1860,  p.  413,  facts  in  the  most  interesting  manner 
Downing,  ‘The  Fruits  of  America,’  in  his  ‘ Geographic  Bot.,’ p.  986 


328 


CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 


CuAr.  IX. 


useful  plant  to  Australia  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, — countries 
abounding  to  an  unparalleled  degree  with  endemic  species. — 
or  to  New  Zealand,  or  to  America  south  of  the  Plata ; and,, 
according  to  some  authors,  not  to  America  northward  of 
Mexico.  I do  not  believe  that  any  edible  or  valuable  plant, 
except  the  canary  grass,  has  been  derived  from  an  oceanic  or 
uninhabited  island.  If  nearly  all  our  useful  plants,  natives 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  South  America,  had  originally  existed 
in  their  present  condition,  the  complete  absence  of  similarly 
useful  plants  in  the  great  countries  just  named  would  be  indeed 
a surprising  fact.  But  if  these  plants  have  been  so  greatly 
moditied  and  improved  by  culture  as  no  longer  closely  to 
resemble  any  natural  species,  we  can  understand  why  the 
above  named  countries  have  given  us  no  useful  plants,  for 
they  were  either  inhabited  by  men  who  did  not  cultivate  the 
ground  at  all,  as  in  Australia  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or 
who  cultivated  it  very  imperfectly,  as  in  some  parts  of 
America.  These  countries  do  yield  plants  which  are  useful 
to  savage  man ; and  Dr.  Hooker  enumerates  no  less  than 
107  such  species  in  Australia  alone;  but  these  plants  have 
not  been  improved,  and  consequently  cannot  compete  with 
those  which  have  been  cultivated  and  improved  during 
thousands  of  years  in  the  civilised  world. 

The  case  of  New  Zealand,  to  which  fine  island  we  as  yet 
owe  no  widely  cultivated  plant,  may  seem  opposed  to  this 
view;  for,  when  first  discovered,  the  natives  cultivated 
several  plants ; but  all  inquirers  believe,  in  accordance  with 
the  traditions  of  the  natives,  tliat  the  early  Polynesian 
colonists  brought  with  them  seeds  and  roots,  as  well  as  the 
dog,  which  had  been  wisely  preserved  during  their  long 
voyage.  The  I Polynesians  are  so  frequently  lost  on  the  ocean 
that  this  degree  of  prudence  would  occur  to  any  wandering 
party:  hence  the  early  colonists  of  New  Zealand,  like  the 
later  European  colonists,  would  not  have  had  any  strong 
inducement  to  cultivate  the  aboriginal  plants.  According  to 
Do  Candolle  we  owe  thirty-three  useful  plants  to  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  Chile;  nor  is  this  surprising  whep  we  remember 
the  civilized  state  of  the  inhabitants,  as  shown  by  the  fact  of 

**  ‘ FJora  of  Australia,’ Introduction,  p.  c^. 


Chap.  IX. 


PRELIMINAKY  REMARKS. 


329 


their  having  practised  artificial  irrigation  and  made  tunnels 
through  hard  rocks  without  the  use  of  iron  or  gunpowder, 
and  who,  as  we  shall  see  in  a future  chapter,  fully  recognised, 
as  far  as  animals  were  concerned,  and  therefore  probably  in 
the  case  of  plants,  the  important  principle  of  selection.  AVe 
owe  some  plants-  to  Brazil ; and  the  early  voyagers,  namely, 
Vespucius  and  Cabral,  describe  the  country  as  thickl}^  peojoled 
and  cultivated.  In  Korth  America  the  natives  cultivated 
maize,  pumpkins,  gourds,  beans,  and  peas,  “ all  different  from 
ours,”  and  tobacco  ; and  we  are  hardly  justified  in  assuming 
that  none  of  our  present  plants  are  descended  from  these 
North  American  forms.  Had  North  America  been  ci\'ilized 
for  as  long  a period,  and  as  thickly  peopled,  as  Asia  or  hurope, 
it  is  probable  that  the  native  vines,  walnuts,  mulberries, 
crabs,  and  plums,  would  have  given  rise,  after  a long  course 
of  cultivation,  to  a multitude  of  vaiieties,  some  extremely 
difterent  from  their  parent-stocks ; and  escaped  seedlings 
would  have  caused  in  the  New,  as  in  tlie  OW  World,  niucli 
perplexity  with  respect  to  their  specific  distinctness  and 
parentage.^ 

Cereal>a. — I will  now  enter  on  details.  The  cereals  cultivated  in 
Europe  consist  of  four  genera — wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats.  Of 
wheat  the  best  modern  authorities  make  four  or  five,  or  even 
seven  distinct  species;  of  rye,  one;  of  barley,,  three ; and  of  oats, 
two,  three,  or  four  species.  So  that  altogether  our  cereals  are 
ranked  by  different  authors  under  from  ten  to  fifteen  distinct 
species.  These  have  given  rise  to  a multitude  of  varieties.  It  is 
a remarkable  fact  that  botanists  are  not  universally  agreed  on  the 
aboriginal  parent-form  of  any  one  cereal  plant.  Eor  instance,  a 


For  Canada,  see  J.  Cartier’s 
Voyage  in  1534;  for  Florida,  see 
IS'arvaez  and  Ferdinand  de  Soto’s 
Voyages.  As  1 have  consulted  these 
and  other  old  Voyages  in  more  than 
one  general  collection  of  Voyages,  I 
do  not  give  precise  reterences  to  the 
pages.  See  also,  for  several  references, 
Asa  Gray,  in  the  ‘American  Journal 
of  Science,’  vol.  xxiv.  Nov.  1857,  p. 
441.  For  the  traditions  of  the  natives 
of  New  Zealand,  see  Crawfurd’s 
‘Grammar  and  Diet,  of  the  Malay 
Language,’  1852,  p.  cclx. 


See,  for  example,  Mr.  Hewett  C. 
Watson’s  remarhs  on  our  wild  plums 
and  cherries  and  crabs:  ‘Cybele 
Britannica,’  vol.  i.  pp.  330,  334,  Lc. 
Van  Mons  (in  his  ‘ Arbres  Fruitiers,’ 
1835,  tom.  i.  p.  444)  declares  that  he 
has  found  the  types  of  all  our  culti- 
vated varieties  in  wild  seedlings,  but 
then  he  looks  on  these  seedlings  as  so 
many  aboriginal  stocks. 

18  See  A.  De  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph. 
Bot.,’  1855,  p.  928  et  seq.  Godroi  , 
‘ De  rEsj)ece,’  1859,  tom.  ii.  p.  70  ; and 
Metzger,  ‘Die  Getreidearten,’&c.,  1841, 


330 


CEREAL  TLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


high  aiTtliority  writes  in  1855,’®  '‘We  ourselves  liave  no  hesitation 
in  stating  our  conviction,  as  the  result  of  all  the  most  reliable 
evidence,  that  none  of  these  Cerealia  exist,  or  have  existed,  truly 
wild  in  their  present  state,  but  that  all  are  cultivated  varieties 
of  species  now  growing  in  great  abundance  in  S.  Europe  or  W.  Asia.” 
Oil  the  other  hand,  Alpli.  De  Candolle^®  has  adduced  abundant 
evidence  that  common  wheat  {Tnticum  vulgare)  has  been  found 
wild  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  where  it  is  not  likely  to  have  escaped 
from  cultivation  : and  there  is  some  force  in  M.  Godron’s  remark, 
that,  supposing  these  plants  to  be  escaped  seedlings,^’  as  they  have 
propagated  themselves  in  a wild  state  for  several  generations,  their 
continued  resemblance  to  cultivated  when,t  renders  it  probable  that 
the  latter  has  retained  its  aboriginal  character.  But  the  strong 
tendency  to  inheritance,  which  most  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  evince, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  here  greatly  undervalued.  Much 
weight  must  also  be  attributed  to  a remark  by  Professor  Hilde- 
brand,^^ that  when  the  seeds  or  fruit  of  cultivated  plants  possess 
qualities  disadvantageous  to  them  as  a means  of  distribution,  we  may 
feel  almost  sure  that  they  no  longer  retain  their  aboriginal  condition. 
On  the  other  hand,  M.  l)e  Candolle  insists  strongly  on  the  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Austrian  dominions  of  rye  and  of  one  kind  of  oats 
in  an  apparently  wild  condition.  With  the  exception  of  these  two 
cases,  which  however  are  rather  doubtful,  and  with  the  exception  of 
two  forms  of  wheat  and  one  of  barley,  which  he  believes  to  have  been 
found  truly  wild,  M.  De  Candolle  does  not  seem  fully  satisfied  with 
the  other  reported  discoveries  of  the  parent-forms  of  our  other 
cereals.  With  respect  to  oats,  according  to  Mr.  Buckmann,^^  the 
wild  English  Avt'na  fatua  can  be  converted  by  a few  years  of  careful 
cultivation  and  selection  into  forms  almost  identical  with  two,  very 
distinct  cultivated  • races.  The  whole  subject  of  the  origin  and 
specific  distinctness  of  the  various  cereal  plants  is  a most  difficult 
one ; but  we  shall  perhaps  be  able  to  judge  a little  better  after  con- 
sidering the  amount  of  variation  which  wheat  has  undergone. 

Metzger  describes  seven  species  of  wheat,  Godron  refers  to  five, 


Mr.  Bentham,  in  his  review, 
entitled  ‘ Hist.  Notes  on  cultivated 
Plants,’  by  Dr.  A.  Targioni-Tozzetti, 
in  ‘ Journal  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  ix. 
(1855),  p.  133.  He  informs  me  that 
he  still  retains  the  same  opinion. 

‘ Geograph.  Bot.,’  p.  928.  The 
whole  subject  is  discussed  with  admir- 
able fulness  and  knowledge. 

Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espfece,’  tom.  ii.  p. 
72.  A few  years  ago  the  excellent, 
though  misinterpreted,  observations 
of  M.  Fabre  led  many  persons  to 
believe  that  wheat  was  a moditied 
descendant  of  Algilops ; but  M.  Godron! 


(tom.  i.  p.  165)  has  shown  by  careful 
experiments  that  the  first  step  in  the 
series,  viz.  JEgilops  triticoides,  is  a 
hybrid  between  wheat  and  AJ.  ovata. 
The  frequency  with  which  these 
hybrids  spontaneously  arise,  and  the 
gradual  manner  in  which  the 
triticoides  becomes  converted  into  true 
wheat,  alone  leave  any  doubt  with 
respect  to  M.  Godron’s  coned  usions. 

‘ Die  Verbreituhgsmittei  der 
Pflanzen,  1873,  p.  129.  ' 

Report  to  British  Association  foi 
1857,  p.  207. 


Chap.  IX. 


WHEAT. 


331 


and  De  Candolle  to  only  four.  It  is  not  improbable  that,  besides 
the  kinds  known  in  Europe,  other  strongly  characterised  forms  exist 
in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  world;  for  Loiseleur-Deslong- 
champs‘^‘‘  speaks  of  three  new  species  or  varieties,  sent  to  Euiope 
in  18‘22  from  Chinese  Mongolia,  which  he  considers  as  being  there 
indigenous.  Moorcroft  also  speaks  of  llasora  wheat  in  Ladakh 
as  very  peculiar.  If  those  botanists  are  right  who  believe  that  at 
least  seven  species  of  wheat  originally  existed,  then  the  amount 
of  variation  in  any  important  character  which  wheat  has  undergone 
under  cultivation  has  been  slight;  but  if  only  four  or  a lesser 
number  of  species  originally  existed,  then  it  is  evident  that  varieties 
have  arisen  so  strongly  marked,  that  they  have  been  considered  by 
capable  judges  as  specifically  distinct.  But  the  impossibility  of 
deciding  which  forms  ought  to  be  ranked  as  species  and  which  as 
varieties,  makes  it  useless  to  specify  in  detail  the  differences  between 
the  various  kinds  of  wheat.  Speaking  generally,  the  organs  of 
vegetation  differ  little  but  some  kinds  grow  close  and  upright, 
whilst  others  spread  and  trail  along  the  ground.  The  straw  differs 
in  being  more  or  less  hollow,  and  in  quality.  The  ears  differ  in 
colour  and  in  shape,  being  quadrangular,  compressed,  or  nearly 
cylindrical ; and  the  florets  differ  in  their  approximation  to  each 
other,  in  their  pubescence,  and  in  being  more  or  less  elongated. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  barbs  is  a conspicuous  difference,  and  in 
certain  Graraineae  serves  even  as  a generic  character ; although, 
as  remarked  by  Godron,^®  the  presence  of  barbs  is  variable  in  certain 
wild  grasses,  and  especially  in  those  such  as  Bromus  secalinus  and 
Lolium  temulentum,  which  habitually  grow  mingled  with  our  cereal 
crops,  and  which  have  thus  unintentionally  been  exposed  to  culture. 
The  grains  differ  in  size,  weight,  and  colour ; in  being  more  or  less 
downy  at  one  end,  in  being  smooth  or  wrinkled,  in  being  either 
nearly  globular,  oval,  or  elongated;  and  finally  in  internal  texture, 
being  tender  or  hard,  or  even  almost  horny,  and  in  the  proportion 
of  gluten  which  they  contain. 

Nearly  all  the  races  or  species  of  wheat  vary,  as  Godron  ^ has 
remarked,  in  an  exactly  parallel  manner, — in  the  seed  being  downy 
or  glabrous,  and  in  colour, — and  in  the  florets  being  barbed  or 
not  barbed,  &c.  Those  who  believe  that  all  the  kinds  are  descended 
from  a single  wild  species  may  account  for  this  parallel  variation 
by  the  inheritance  of  a similar  constitution,  and  a consequent 
tendency  to  vary  in  the  same  manner;  and  those  who  believe 
in  the  general  theory  of  descent  with  modification  may  extend  this 


‘ Considerations  sur  les  Cereales,’ 
1842-43,  p.  29. 

‘Travels  in  the  Himalayan  Pro-  • 
Vinces,’  &c.,  1841,  vol.  i.  p.  224. 

Col.  J.  Le  Couteur  on  the 
' Varieties  of  Wheat,’  pp.  23,  79. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  ‘Con- 


sid.  6ur  les  Cereales,’  p.  11. 

See  an  excellent  review  in 
Hooker’s  ‘Journ.  of  Botany,’  vol.  viii 
p.  82,  note 

‘ ‘ De  I’Espece,  tom.  ii.  p.  73. 
Ibid.,  tom.  ii.  p.  75. 


CEREAL  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


33:^ 


view  to  the  several  species  of  wheat,  if  such  ever  existed  in  a state 
of  nature. 

Although  few  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  present  any  conspicuous 
difference,  their  number  is  great.  Dalbret  cultivated  during  thirty 
years  from  150  to  160  kinds,  and  excepting  in  the  quality  of  the 
grain  they  all  kept  true;  Colonel  Le  Couteur  possessed  upwards  ol 
150,  and  Philippar  322  varieties.^’  As  wheat  is  an  annual,  we  thus 
see  how  strictly  many  trifling  differences  in  character  are  inherited 
tlirougli  many  generations.  Colonel  Le  Couteur  insists  strongly  on 
this  same  fact.  In  his  persevering  and  successful  attempts  to  raise 
new  varieties,  he  found  that  there  was  only  one  “ secure  mode  to 
“ ensure  the  growth  of  pure  sorts,  namely,  to  grow  them  from  single 

grains  or  from  single  cars,  and  to  follow  up  the  plan  by  afterwards 

sowing  only  the  produce  of  the  most  productive  so  as  to  form  a 
“ stock.”  But  Major  Hallett  has  gone  much  farther,  and  by  the 
continued  selection  of  plants  from  the  grains  of  the  same  ear, 
during  successive  generations,  has  made  his  ‘ Pedigree  in  Wheat  ’ 
(and  other  cereals)  now  famous  in  many  quarters  of  the  world. 
The  great  amount  of  variability  in  the  plants  of  the  same 
variety  is  another  interesting  point,  which  would  never  have 
been  detected  except  by  an  eye  long  practised  to  the  work; 
thus  Colonel  Le  Couteur  relates  that  in  a field  of  his  own 
wheat,  which  he  considered  at  least  as  pure  as  that  of  any  of  his 
neighbours.  Professor  La  Gasca  found  twenty-three  sorts;  and 
Professor  Henslow  has  observed  similar  facts.  Besides  such  in- 
dividual variations,  forms  sufficiently  ’^ell  marked  to  be  valued  and 
to  become  widely  cultivated  sometimes  suddenly  appear:  thus 
Mr.  Shirreff  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  raise  in  his  lifetime  seven 
new  varieties,  which  are  now  extensively  grown  in  many  parts  of 
Britain.^^ 

As  in  the  case  of  many  other  plants,  some  varieties,  both  old  and 
new,  are  far  more  constant  in  character  than  others.  Colonel  Lc 
Couteur  was  forced  to  reject  some  of  his  new  sub-varieties,  which 
he  suspected  had  been  produced  from  a cross,  as  incorrigibly 
sportive.  On  the  other  hand  Major  Hallett  has  shown  how  wo i ;der- 
fully  constant  some  varieties  are,  although  not  ancient  ones,  and  al- 
though cultivated  in  various  countries.  With  respect  to  the  tendency 
to  vary,  Metzger  gives  from  his  own  experience  some  interesting 
facts ; he  describes  three  Spanish  sub-varieties,  more  especially  one 


For  Dalbret  and  Philippar,  see 
Loiselenr-Deslongchamps,  ‘ Consid.  sur 
les  Cer stilus,’  pp.  45,  70.  Le  Couteur 
on  Wheat,  pp.  6,  14-17. 

See  his  Essay  on  ‘ Pedigree  in 
VVheat,’  1862  ; also  paper  read  before 
the  British  Association,  1869,  and 
other  pulilications. 

‘ \'aneties  of  Wheat,’  Introduc- 
Uon,  p.  vi.  Marshall,  in  his  ‘ Rural 


Economy  of  Yorkshire,’  vol.  ii.  p.  9, 
remarks  that  “ in  every  field  of  corn 
there  is  as  much  variety  as  in  a herd 
of  cattle.” 

‘ Gardener’s  Chron.’  and  ‘ Agri- 
culc.  Gazette,’  1862,  p.  963. 

‘Gardener’s  Chron.’  Nov.  1868 
p.  1199. 

‘ Getreidcarten,’  1841^  s.  06,  91 
92,  116,  117. 


Chap.  IX. 


WHEAT. 


333 


known  to  be  constant  in  Spain,  which  in  Germany  assnmnd  their 
proper  character  only  during  hot  summers  ; another  variety  kept 
true  only  in  good  land,  but  after  having  been  cultivated  for  twenty- 
five  years  became  more  constant.  He  mentions  two  other  sub- 
varieties  which  were  at  first  inconstant,  but  subsequently  becam^e, 
apparently  without  any  selection,  accustomed  to  their  new  homes, 
and  retained  their  proper  character.  These  facts  show  what  small 
changes  in  the  conditions  of  life  cause  variability,  and  they  further 
show  that  a variety  may  become  habituated  to  new  conditions. 
One  is  at  first  inclined  to  conclude  with  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, 
that  wheat  cultivated  in  the  same  country  is  exposed  to  remarkably 
uniform  conditions;  but  manures  differ,  seed  is  taken  from  one 
soil  to  another,  and,  what  is  far  more  important,  the  plants  are 
exposed  as  little  as  possible  to  struggle  witli  other  plants,  and  are 
thus  enabled  to  exist  under  diversified  conditions.  In  a state  of 
hature  each  plant  is  confined  to  that  particular  station  and  kind 
of  nutriment  which  it  can  seize  from  the  other  plants  by  which  it 
is  surrounded. 

Wheat  quickly  assumes  new  habits  of  life.  The  summer  and 
winter  kinds  were  classed  by  Linnaeus  as  distinct  species ; but 
M.  Monnier^^  has  proved  that  the  difference  between  them  is  only 
temporary.  He  sowed  winter-wheat  in  spring,  and  out  of  one 
hundred  plants  four  alone  produced  ripe  seeds;  these  were  sown 
and  resown,  and  in  three  years  plants  were  reared  which  ripened 
all  their  seed.  Conversely,  nearly  all  the  plants  raised  from 
summer- wheat,  which  was  sown  in  autumn,  perished  from  frost ; 
but  a few  were  saved  and  produced  seed,  and  in  three  years  this 
summer- variety  was  c<  mverted  into  a winter- variety.  Hence  it  is  not 
surprising  that  wheat  soon  becomes  to  a certain  extent  acclimatised, 
and  that  seed  brought  from  distant  countries  and  sown  in  Europe 
vegetates  at  first,  or  even  for  a considerable  period, differently 
from  our  European  varieties=  In  Canada  the  first  sellers,  accord- 
ing to  Kalm,^®  found  their  winters  too  severe  for  winter-wheat 
brought  from  France,  and  their  summers  often  too  short  for  sum- 
mer-wheat ; and  they  thought  that  their  country  was  useless  for 
corn  crops  until  they  procured  summer- wheat  from  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  which  succeeded  well.  It  is  notorious  that  the 
proportion  of  gluten  differs  much  under  different  climates.  The 
weight  of  the  grain  is  also  quickly  affected  by  climate : Loiseleur- 
Deslongchamps  sowed  near  Paris  54  varieties,  obtained  fi-om  the 
South  of  France  and  from  the  Black  Sea,  and  52  of  these  yielded 
seed  from  10  to  40  per  cent,  heavier  than  the  parent-seed.  He  then 


Quoted  by  Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espfece,’ 
vol.  ii.  p.  74,  So  it  is,  according  to 
Metzger  (‘ Getreidearten,’  s.  18),  with 
summer  and  winter  barley, 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  ‘Cere- 
ales,’  part  ii.  p.  224.  Le  Couteur,  p. 


70.  Many  othef  acciuuts  could  be 
added. 

‘Travels  in  North  America,’ 
1753-1761,  Eng.  translat.,  vol,  iii.  p. 
165. 

‘ Cereal es,’  part  ii.  pp.  170-183 


334 


CEREAL  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


Eoiit  these  heavier  grains  back  to  the  South  of  Franco,  but  thero 
they  immediately  yielded  lighter  seed. 

All  those  who  have  closely  attended  to  the  subject  insist  on  the 
close  adaptation  of  numerous  varieties  of  wheat  to  various  soils  and 
climates  even  within  the  same  country;  thus  Colonel  Le  Couteur'*- 
says,  ‘Mt  is  the  suitableness  of  each  sort  to  each  soil  that  will 
enable  the  farmer  to  pay  his  rent  by  sowing  one  variety,  where  he 
would  be  unable  to  do  so  by  attempting  to  grow  another  of  a 
seemingly  better  sort."  This  may  be  in  part  due  to  each  kind 
becoming  habituated  to  its  conditions  of  life,  as  Metzger  has  shown 
certainly  occurs,  but  it  is  probably  in  main  part  due  to  innate 
differences  between  the  several  varieties. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  deterioration  of  wheat ; that  the 
quality  of  the  flour,  size  of  grain,  time  of  flowering,  and  hardness, 
may  be  modified  by  climate  and  soil,  seems  nearly  certain;  but 
that  the  whole  body  of  any  one  sub-variety  ever  becomes  changed 
into  another  and  distinct  sub- variety,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe. 
What  apparently  does  take  place,  according  to  Le  Couteur,^^  is,  that 
some  one  sub-variety  out  of  the  many  which  may  always  be  detected 
in  the  same  field  is  more  prolific  than  the  others,  and  gradually 
supplants  the  variety  which  was  first  sown. 

With  respect  to  the  natural  crossing  of  distinct  varieties  the 
evidence  is  conflicting,  but  preponderates  against  its  frequent  occur- 
rence. Many  authors  maintain  that  impregnation  takes  place  in 
the  closed  flower,  but  I am  sure  from  my  own  observation  that  this 
is  not  the  case,  at  least  with  those  varieties  to  which  I have  attended. 
But  as  I shall  have  to  discuss  this  subject  in  another  work,  it  may 
be  here  passed  over. 

In  conclusion,  all  authors  admit  that  numerous  varieties  of 
wheat  have  arisen;  but  their  differences  are  unimportant, 
unless,  indeed,  some  of  the  so-called  species  are  ranked  as 
varieties.  Those  who  believe  that  from  four  to  seven  wild 
species  of  Triticum  originally  existed  in  nearly  the  same  con- 
dition as  at  present,  rest  their  belief  chiefly  on  the  great 
antiquity  of  the  several  forms. It  is  an  important  fact, 
which  we  have  recently  learnt  from  the  admirable  researches 
of  Heer,^^  that  the  inhabitants  of  Switzerland,  even  so  early 


‘On  the  Varieties  of  Wheat,’ 
Introduct.,  p.  vii.  See  Marshall, 
‘ Rural  Econ.  of  Yorkshire,’  vol.  ii.  p. 
9.  With  respect  to  similar  cases  of 
adaptation  in  the  varieties  of  oats,  see 
some  interesting  papers  in  the  ‘ Gar- 
den )i ’s  Chron.  and  Agricult.  Gazette,’ 
1850,  pp.  204,  219. 

‘ On  the  Varieties  of  Wheat,’  p. 
59.  Mr.  Shirreff,  and  a higher  autho- 


rity cannot  be  given  (‘  Gard.  Chron. 
and  Agricult.  Gazette,’  1862,  p. 
963),  says,  “I  have  never  seen  grain 
which  has  either  been  improved  or 
degenerated  by  cultivation,  so  as  to 
convey  the  change  to  the  succeeding 
crop. 

■‘3  Alph.  De  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph. 
Bot.,’  p.  930. 

‘ Pdanzen  der  Pfahlbautcn,  ’ 1866. 


Chap.  IX. 


WHEAT. 


335 


as  the  Neolithic  period,  cultivated  no  less  than  ten  cereal 
plants,  namely,  five  kinds  of  wheat,  of  which  at  least  four  are 
commonly  looked  at  as  distinct  species,  three  kinds  of  barley, 
a panicum,  and  a setaria.  If  it  could  be  shoAvn  that  at  the 
earliest  dawn  of  agriculture  five  kinds  of  wheat  and  three  of 
barley  had  been  cultivated,  we  should  of  course  be  compelled 
to  look  at  these  forms  as  distinct  species.  But,  as  Heer  has 
remarked,  agriculture  even  at  the  Neolithic  period,  had  already 
made  considerable  progress  ; for,  besides  the  cereals,  peas, 
poppies,  flax,  and  apparently  apples,  were  cultivated.  It  may 
also  be  inferred,  from  one  variety  of  wheat  being  the  so  called 
Egyptian,  and/rom  what  is  known  of  the  native  country  of 
the  panicum  and  setaria,  as  well  as  from  the  nature  of  the 
weeds  which  then  grew*  mingled  with  the  crops,  that  the  lake- 
inhabitants  either  still  kept  up  commercial  intercourse  with 
some  southern  people  or  had  originally  proceeded  as  colonists 
from  the  South. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps  has  argued  that,  if  our  cereal 
plants  have  been  greatly  modified  by  cultivation,  the  weeds 
which  habitually  grow  mingled  with  them  would  have  been 
e lually  modified.  But  this  argument  shows  how  completely 
the  principle  of  selection  has  been  overlooked.  That  such 
weeds  have  not  varied,  or  at  least  do  not  vary  now  in  any 
extreme  degree,  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  H.  C.  Watson  and 
Professor  Asa  Gray,  as  they  inform  me ; but  who  will  pretend 
to  say  that  they  do  not  vary  as  much  as  the  individual  plants 
of  the  same  sub-variety  of  wheat?  We  have  already  seen 
that  pure  varieties  of  wheat,  cultivated  in  the  same  field,  offer 
many  slight  Variations,  which  can  be  selected  and  separately 
propagated ; and  that  occasionally  more  strongly  pronounced 
variations  appear,  which,  as  Mr.  Shirreff  has  proved,  are  well 
worthy  of  extensive  cultivation.  Not  until  equal  attention 
be  paid  to  the  variability  and  selection  of  weeds,  can  the 
argument  from  their  constancy  under  unintentional  culture 
be  of  any  value.  In  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
selection  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that  in  the  several  cul- 
tivated varieties  of  wheat  the  organs  of  vegetation  differ  so 
little ; for  if  a plant  with  peculiar  leaves  appeared,  it  would 
‘ Les  Cereales,’  p.  94. 


33G 


CEREAL  PLANTS, 


Chap.  IX. 


bo  neglected  unless  the  grains  of  corn  were  at  the  same  time 
superior  in  quality  or  size.  The  selection  of  seed-corn  wa.« 
strongly  recommended  in  ancient  times  by  Columella  and 
Celsus  ; and  as  Virgil  says, — 

“ I’ve  seen  the  largest  seeds,  tho’  viewed  with  care. 
Degenerate,  unless  th’  industrious  hand 
Did  yearly  cull  the  largest.” 

But  whether  in  ancient  times  selection  was  methodically 
pursued  we  may  well  doubt,  when  we  hear  how  laborious  tho 
work  has  been  found  by  Le  Contour  and  Hallett.  Although 
the  principle  of  selection  is  so  important,  yet  the  little  which 
man  has  effected,  by  incessant  efforts  during  thousands  of 
years,  in  rendering  the  plants  more  productive  or  the  grains 
more  nutritious  than  they  were  in  the  time  of  the  old  Egypt- 
ians, would  seem  to  speak  strongly  against  its  efficacy.  But 
we  must  not  forget  that  at  each  successive  period  the  state  of 
agriculture  and  the  quantity  of  manure  supplied  to  the  land 
will  have  determined  the  maximum  degree  of  productiveness  ; 
for  it  would  be  impossible  to  cultivate  a highly  productive 
variet3^,  unless  the  land  contained  a sufficient  supply  of  the 
necessary  chemical  elements. 

We  now  know  that  man  was  sufficiently  civilized  to  culti- 
vate the  ground  at  an  immensely  remote  period ; so  that 
wheat  might  have  been  improved  long  ago  up  to  that  standard 
ofexcellence  which  was  possible  under  the  then  existing  state 
of  agriculture.  One  small  class  of  facts  supports  this  view  of 
the  slow  and  gradual  improvement  of  our  cereals.  In  the 
most  ancient  lake-habitations  of  Switzerland,  when  men 
employed  only  flint-tools,  the  most  extensively  cultivated 
wheat  was  a peculiar  kind,  with  remarkably  small  ears  and 
graiiis.'^*^  “ Whilst  the  grains  of  the  modern  forms  are  in 
section  from  seven  to  eight  millimetres  in  length,  the  larger 
grains  from  the  lake  habitations  are  six,  seldom  seven,  and 
the  smaller  ones  only  four.  The  ear  is  thus  much  narrower. 

Quoted  by  Le  Couteur,  p.  !6.  bauten,  ’ 1866.  The  foPoiring  passage 

A.  De  Candolle,  ‘ G^ograpL  Hot.,’  is  quoted  i'rom  Dr.  Christ,  in  ‘ Die 
p 932.  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,  von  Dr.  RUti 

■***  0.  Heer,  ‘ Dio  Pdaazen  der  Pfahl-  meyer,’  1861,  s.  225. 


Chap.  IX. 


WHEAT. 


337 


Biid  tlie  spikelets  stand  out  more  horizontally,  than  in  our 
present  forms.”  So  again  with  barley,  the  most  ancient  and 
most  extensively  cultivated  kind  had  small  ears,  and  the 
grains  were  “ smaller,  shorter,  and  nearer  to  each  other,  than 
in  that  now  grown  ; without  the  husk  they  were  2 J lines  long, 
and  scarcely  I j broad,  whilst  those  now  grown  have  a length 
of  three  lines,  and  almost  the  same  in  breadth.”  These 
small-grained  varieties  of  wheat  and  barley  are  believed  by 
Heer  to  be  the  parent-forms  of  certain  existing  allied  varieties, 
which  have  supplanted  their  early  progenitors. 

Heer  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  first  appearance 
and  final  disappearance  of  the  several  plants  which  were 
cultivated  in  greater  or  less  abundance  in  Switzerland 
during  former  successive  periods,  and  which  generally  differed 
more  or  less  from  our  existing  varieties.  The  peculiar  small- 
eared and  small-grained  wheat,  already  alluded  to,  was  the 
commonest  kind  during  the  Stone  period ; it  lasted  down  to 
the  Helvetico-Roinan  age,  and  then  became  extinct.  A second 
kind  was  rare  at  first,  but  afterwards  became  more  frequent. 
A third,  the  Egyptian  wheat  (T.  turgidum),  does  not  agree 
exactly  with  any  existing  variety,  and  was  rare  during  the 
Stone  period.  A fourth  kind  (T.  dicoccum)  differs  from  all 
known  varieties  of  this  form.  A fifth  kind  (T.  moriococcum) 
is  known  to  have  existed  during  the  Stone  period  only  by 
the  presence  of  a single  ear.  A sixth  kind,  the  common 
T.  speJta,  was  not  introduced  into  Switzerland  until  the 
Bronze  age.  Of  barley,  besides  the  short-eared  and  small- 
grained  kind,  two  others  were  cultivated,  one  of  which  was 
very  scarce,  and  resembled  our  present  common  H.  distichum. 
During  the  Bronze  age  rye  and  oats  were  introduced;  the 
oat-grains  being  somewhat  smaller  than  those  produced  by 
our  existing  varieties.  The  poppy  was  largely  cultivated 
during  the  Stone  period,  probably  for  its  oil ; but  the  variety 
which  then  existed  is  not  now  known.  A peculiar  pea  with 
small  seeds  lasted  from  the  Stone  to  the  Bronze  age,  and  then 
became  extinct ; whilst  a peculiajr  bean,  likewise  having  small 
seeds,  came  in  at  the  Bronze  period  and  lasted  to  the  time 
of  the  Romans.  These  details  sound  like  the  descriptions 

**  Heer,  as  quoted  by  Carl  Vogt,  ‘ Lectures  on  Man,’  Eng.  translat.  p.  35r> 

£3 


338 


CEREAL  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


given  by  pakeontologists  of  the  first  appearance,  tlie  increasing 
rarity,  and  final  extinction  or  modi H cation  of  fossil  species, 
oinbcddcd  in  the  successive  stages  of  a geological  formation. 

Finally,  every  one  must  judge  for  himself  ■whether  it  is 
more  probable  tliat  the  several  foj  ms  of  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
and  oats  are  descended  from  between  ten  and  fifteen  species, 
most  of  which  are  now  either  nnknoAvn  or  extinct,  or  whetlier 
they  are  descended  from  between  four  and  eight  species, 
which  may  have  either  closely  resembled  our  present  cultivated 
forms,  or  have  been  so  widely  ditferent  as  to  escape  identifica- 
tion. In  this  latter  case  we  must  conclude  that  man  cultivated 
the  cereals  at  an  enormously  remote  period,  and  that  he 
formerly  practised  some  degree  of  selection,  which  in  itself  is 
not  improbable.  We  may,  perhaps,  further  believe  that,  when 
wheat  was  first  cultivated  the  ears  and  grains  increased 
quickly  in  size,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  roots  of  the  wild 
carrot  and  parsnip  are  known  to  increase  quickly  in  bulk 
under  cultivation. 

Maize  or  Jndian  Corn : Zea  ways. — Botanists  are  nearly  imani- 
mous  that  all  the  cultivated  kinds  belong  to  the  same  species. 
It  is  undoubtedly  of  American  origin,  and  was  grown  by  the 
iiborigines  throughout  the  continent  from  New  England  to  Chili. 
Its  cultivation  must  have  been  extremely  ancient,  for  Tschudi 
describes  two  kinds,  now  extinct  or  not  known  in  Peru,  which  were 
taken  from  tombs 'apparently  prior  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Incas. 
But  there  is  even  stronger  evidence  of  antiquity,  for  I found  on  the 
coast  of  Peru  heads  of  maize,  together  with  eighteen  species  of 
recent  sea-shell,  embedded  in  a beach  which  had  been  upraised  at 
least  85  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  accordance  with  this 
ancient  cultivation,  numerous  American  varieties  have  arisen.  The 
aboriginal  form  has  not  as  yet  been  discovered  in  the  wild  state. 
A peculiar  kind,^^  in  which  the  grains,  instead  of  being  naked,  are 


See  Alph.  De  Candolle’s  long  dis- 
cussion in  his  ‘ Geograph.  Bot.,’  p.  942. 
With  respect  to  New  England,  see  Silli- 
man’s  ‘ American  Journal,’  vol.  xliv. 
p.  99. 

‘ Travels  in  Peru,’  Eng.  translat., 
p.  177. 

‘Geolog,  Observ.  on  S.  America,’ 
1816,  p.  49. 

This  maize  is  figured  in  Bonafous’ 
magnificent  work,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  du 
Mais,  1836,  PI.  v.  bis,  and  in  the 


‘Journal  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  i.,  1846, 
p.  115,  where  an  account  is  given  of 
the  result  of  sowing  the  seed.  A 
young  Guarany  Indian,  on  seeing  this 
kind  of  maize,  told  Auguste  St.  Hilaire 
(see  De  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph.  Bot.,’  p. 
951)  that  it  grew  wild  in  the  humid 
forests  of  his  native  land.  Mr. 
Teschemacher,  in  ‘ Proc.  Boston  Soc. 
Hist.,’  Oct.  19th,  1842,  gives  au 
account  of  sowing  the  seed. 


Chap.  IX. 


MAIZE. 


839 


concealed  by  husks  as  much  as  eleven  lines  in  length,  has  been 
stated,  but  on  insufficient  evidence,  to  grow  wild  in  Brazil.  It  is 
almost  certain  that  the  aboriginal  form  would  have  had  its  grains 
thus  protected ; but  the  seeds  of  the  Brazilian  variety  produce, 
as  I hear  from  Professor  Asa  Gray,  and  as  is  stated  in  two  published 
accounts,  either  common  or  husked  maize ; and  it  is  not  credible 
that  a wild  species,  v/hen  first  cultivated,  should  vary  so  quickly 
and  in  so  great  a degree. 

Maize  has  varied  in  an  extraordinary  and  conspicuous  manner. 
Metzger,®^  who  paid  particular  attention  to  the  cultivation  oL  this 
plant,  makes  twelve  races  (unter-art)  with  numerous  sub- varieties; 
of  the  latter  some  are  tolerably  constant,  others  quite  inconstant. 
The  different  races  vary  in  height  from  15-18  feet  to  only  16-18 
inches,  as  in  a dwarf  variety  described  by  Bonafous.  The  whole 
ear  is  variable  in  shape,  being  long  and  narrow,  or  short  and  thick, 
or  branched.  The  ear  in  one  variety  is  more  than  four  times  as 
long  as  in  a dwarf  kind.  The  seeds  are  arranged  in  the  ear  in  from 
six  to  even  twenty  rows,  or  are  placed  irregularly.  The  seeds 
are  coloured — white,  pale-yellov/,  orange,  red,  violet,  or  elegantly 
streaked  with  black  and  in  the  same  ear  there  are  sometimes 
seeds  of  two  colours.  In  a small  collection  I found  that  a single 
grain  of  one  variety  nearly  equalled  in  w'eight  seven  grains  of 
another  variety.  The  shape  of  the  seed  varies  greatly,  being  very 
flat,  or  nearly  globular,  or  oval;  broader  than  long,  or  longer  than 
broad ; without  any  point,  or  produced  into  a sharp  tooth,  and 
this  tooth  is  sometimes  recurved.  One  variety  (the  rugosa  of 
Bonafous,  and  which  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States 
as  sweet  corn)  has  its  seeds  curiously  wrinkled,  giving  to  the  whole 
oar  a singular  appearance.  Another  variety  (the  cymosa  of  Bon.) 
carries  its  ears  so  crowded  together  that  it  is  called  ma'is  a bouquet. 
The  seeds  of  some  varieties  contain  much  glucose  instead  of  starch. 
Male  flowers  sometimes  appear  amongst  the  female  flowers,  and 
Mr.  J.  Scott  has  lately  obsersmd  the  rarer  case  of  female  flow^ers  on 
a true  male  panicle,  and  likewise  hermaphrodite  flowers.^^  Azara 
describes  a variety  in  Paraguay  the  grains  of  which  are  very 
tender,  and  he  states  that  several  varieties  are  fitted  for  being  cooked 
ill  various  ways.  The  varieties  also  differ  greatly  in  precocity,  and 
have  different  powers  of  resisting  dryness  and  the  action  of  violent 
wind.^'®  Some  of  the  foregoing  differences  would  certainly  be  con- 
sidered of  specific  value  with  plants  in  a state  of  nature. 

Le  Comte  Be  states  that  the  grains  of  all  the  varieties  which  he 


54  Moquin-Tandon,  ‘ Elements  de 
Teratologie,’  1841,  p.  126. 

55  ‘Die  Getreidearten,’  1841,  s.  208. 
I have  modified  a few  of  Metzger’s 
statements  in  accordance  with  those 
made  by  Bonafous  in  his  great  work, 
‘ Hist.  Nat.  du  Mais,’  1836. 

56  Godron,  ‘De  I’Espece,’  tom.  ii. 


p.  80 ; Al.  De  Candolle,  ibid.,  p.  951. 

57  ‘ Transact.  Bot.  Soc.  of  Edin- 
burgh,’ vol.  viii.  p.  60. 

58 1 Voyages  dans  I’Amerique  Meri- 
dionale,’  tom.  i.  p.  147. 

59  Bonafous,  ‘ Hist.  Nat.  du  Mais,’ 
p.  31. 


340 


CEREAL  PLANTS. 


CHi\r.  IX 


oultivatcd  ultimately  assumed  a yellow  colour.  But  Bouafous®*^ 
found  that  most  of  those  which  he  sowed  for  ten  consecutive  years 
kept  true  to  their  proper  tints ; and  he  adds  that  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Pyrenees  and  on  the  plains  of  Piedmont  a white  maize  has  bee^ 
cultivated  for  more  than  a century,  and  has  undergone  no  change. 

The  tall  kinds  grown  in  southern  latitudes,  and  therefore  exjDosed 
to  great  heat,  require  from  six  to  seven  months  to  ripen  their  seed ; 
whereas  the  dwarf  kinds,  grown  in  northern  and  colder  climates, 
require  only  from  three  to  four  months.® ‘ Peter  Kalm,®^  who 
particularly  attended  to  this  plant,  says,  that  in  the  United  States, 
in  proceeding  from  south  to  north,  the  plants  steadily  diminish  in 
bulk.  Seeds  brought  from  lat.  37°  in  Virginia,  and  sown  in  lat. 
43‘^-44°  in  New  England,  produce  plants  which  will  not  ripen  their 
seed,  or  ripen  them  with  the  utmost  difficulty.  So  it  is  with  seed 
carried  from  New  England  to  lat.  45°-47°  in  Canada.  By  taking- 
great  care  at  first,  the  southern  kinds  after  some  years’  culture 
ripen  their  seed  perfectly  in  their  noithern  homes,  so  that  this  is  an 
analogous  case  with  that  of  the  conversion  of  suinmer  into  winter 
wheat,  and  conversely.  When  tall  and  dwarf  maize  are  planted 
together,  the  dwarf  kinds  are  in  full  flower  before  the  others  have 
produced  a single  flower ; and  in  Pennsylvania  they  ripen  their 
seeds  six  weeks  earlier  than  the  tall  maize.  Metzger  also  mentions 
a European  maize  wdiich  ripens  its  seed  four  weeks  earlier  than 
another  European  kind.  With  these  facts,  so  plainly  showing 
inherited  acclimatisation,  we  may  readily  believe  Kahn,  who  states 
that  in  North  America  maize  and  some  other  plants  have  gradually 
been  cultivated  further  and  further  nothward.  All  writers  agree 
that  to  keep  the  varieties  of  maize  pure  they  must  be  planted 
separately  so  that  they  shall  not  cross. 

The  effects  of  the  climate  of  Europe  on  the  American  varieties  is 
highly  remarkable.  Metzger  obtained  seed  from  various  parts  of 
America,  and  cultivated  several  kinds  in  Germany.  I will  give  an 
abstract  of  the  changes  observed  in  one  case,  namely,  with  a tall 
kind  (Breit-korniger  mais,  Zea  altissima)  brought  from  the  -w^armer 
parts  of  America.  During  the  fii’st  year  the  plants  were  twelvj 
feet  high,  and  a few  seeds  -were  perfected;  the  lower  seeds  in  the  ear 
kept  true  to  their  proper  form,  but  the  upper  seeds  became  slightly 
changed.  In  the  second  generation . the  plants  w^ere  from  nine  to 
ten  feet  in  height,  and  ripened  their  seed  better ; the  depression  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  seed  had  almost  disappeared,  and  the  original 
beautiful  white  colour  had  become  duskier.  Some  of  the  seeds  had 
even  become  yellow,  and  in  their  now  rounded  form  they  ap- 
proached common  European  maize.  In  the  third  generation  nearly 
all  resemblance  to  the  original  and  very  distinct  American  parent- 


Ibid.,  p.  31. 

61  Metzger,  ‘ Getreidearteu,’  s.  206. 

62  ‘ Description  of  Maize,’  by  P. 
Kahn,  1752,  in  ‘ Swedish  Acts,’  vol. 


iv.  I have  consulted  an  old  English 
MS.  translation. 

63  ‘ Getreidearten,’  s.  208. 


Ujiap.  IX.  CULINARY  PLANTS : CABBAGES.  34 i 

form  was  lost.  In  the  sixth  generation  this  maize  perfectly 
resembled  a European  variety,  described  as  the  second  sub- variety 
of  the  fifth  race.  When  Metzger  published  his  book,  this  variety 
was  still  cultivated  near  Heidelberg,  and  could  be  distinguished 
from  the  common  kind  only  by  a somewhat  more  vigorous  growth. 
Analogous  results  were  obtained  by  the  cultivation  of  another 
American  race,  the  “ white-tooth  corn,”  in  which  the  tooth  nearly 
disappeared  even  in  the  second  generation.  A third  race,  the 
“ chicken  corn,”  did  not  undergo  so  great  a change,  but  the  seeds 
became  less  polished  and  pellucid.  In  the  above  cases  the  seeds 
were  carried  from  a warm  to  a colder  climate.  But  Fritz  Muller 
informs  me  that  a dwarf  variety  with  small  rounded  seeds  (papa- 
gaien-mais),  introduced  from  Germany  into  S.  Brazil,  produces 
plants  as  tall,  with  seeds  as  flat,  as  those  of  the  kind  commonly 
cultivated  there. 

These  facts  afford  the  most  remarkable  instance  known  to 
me  of  the  direct  and  prompt  action  of  climate  on  a plant. 
It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  tallness  of  the  stem, 
the  period  of  vegetation,  and  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  would 
have  been  thus  affected ; but  it*  is  a much  more  surprising 
fact  that  the  seeds  should  have  undergone  so  rapid  and  great 
a change.  As,  however,  flowers,  with  their  product  the  seed, 
are  formed  by  the  metamorphosis  of  the  stem  and  leaves,  any 
modification  in  these  latter  organs  would  be  apt  to  extend, 
through  correlation,  to  the  organs  of  fructification 

Cahhage  (Brassica  oleracea). — Every  one  knows  how  greatly  the 
various  kinds  of  cabbage  differ  in  appearance.  In  the  Island  of 
Jersey,  from  the  effects  of  particular  culture  and  of  climate,  a stalk 
has  grown  to  the  height  of  sixteen  feet,  and  had  its  spring  shoots 
at  the  top  occupied  by  a magpie’s  nest : ” the  woody  stems  are  not 
unfrequently  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  height,  and  are  there  used 
as  rafters  and  as  walking-sticks.  We  are  thus  reminded  that  in 
certain  countries  plants  belonging  to  the  generally  herbaceous 
order  of  the  Cruel  ferae  are  developed  into  trees.  Every  one  can 
appreciate  the  difference  between  green  or  red  cabbages  with 
great  single  heads;  Brussel-sprouts  v/ith  numerous  little  heads; 
broccolis  and  caulifl*  >wers  with  the  greater  number  of  their  flowers 
in  an  aborted  condition,  incajDable  of  producing  seed,  and  borne  in 
a dense  corymb  instead  of  an  open  panicle ; savoys  with  their 
blistered  and  wrinkled  leaves;  and  borecoles  and  kails,  which 
come  nearest  to  the  wild  parent-form.  There  are  also  various 


‘ Cabbage  Timber,  ‘ Gardener’s  walking-stick  made  from  a cabbage- 
Chron.,’  1856,  p,  744,  quoted  from  stalk  is  exhibited  in  the  Museum  al 
Hooker’s  ‘Journal  of  Botany.'  A Kew. 


342 


CULINARY  PLANTS. 


IX 


frizzled  aud  laciniated  kinds,  some  of  such  beautiful  colours  that 
Vilmorin  in  his  Catalogue  of  1851  enumerates  ten  varieties  which 
are  valued  solely  for  ornament.  Some  kinds  are  less  commonly 
known,  such  as  the  Portuguese  Couve  Tronchuda,  with  the  ribs  of 
its  leaves  greatly  thickened ; and  the  Kohlrabi  or  choux-raves, 
with  their  stems  enlarged  into  great  turnip-like  masses  above  the 
ground;  and  the  recently  formed  new  race*^^  of  the  choux  raves, 
already  including  nine  sub-varieties,  in  which  the  enlarged  part 
lies  beneath  the  ground  like  a turnip. 

Although  we  see  such  great  differences  in  the  shape,  size,  colour, 
arrangement,  and  manner  of  growth  of  the  leaves  and  stem,  anti  of 
the  flower-stems  in  the  broccoli  and  cauliflower,  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  flowers  themselves,  the  seed-pods  and  seeds,  present  ex- 
tremely slight  differences  or  none  at  all.®®  I compared  the  flowers 
of  all  the  principal  kinds;  those  of  the  Couve  Tronchuda  are  white 
and  rather  smaller  than  in  common  cabbages ; those  of  the  Ports- 
• mouth  broccoli  have  narrower  sepals,  and  smaller,  less  elongated 
petals ; and  in  no  other  cabbage  could  any  difference  be  detected. 
With  respect  to  the  seed-pods,  in  the  imrple  Kohlrabi  alone,  do 
they  differ,  being  a little  longer  and  narrower  than  usual.  I made 
a collection  of  the  seeds  of  twenty-eight  different  kinds,  and  most 
of  them  'were  undistinguishable ; when  there  was  any  difference 
it  \vas  excessively  slight ; thus,  the  seeds  of  various  broccolis  and 
cauliflowers,  when  seen  in  mass,  are  a little  redder;  those  of  the 
early  green  Ulm  savoy  are  rather  smaller ; and  those  of  the  Breda 
kail  slightly  larger  than  usual,  but  not  larger  than  the  seeds  of 
the  wild  cabbage  from  the  coast  of  Wales.  What  a contrast  in 
the  amount  of  difference  is  j)resented  if,  on  the  one  hand,  we 
compare  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  various  kinds  of  cabbage  with 
their  flowers,  pods,  and  seeds,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  corre- 
sponding parts  in  the  varieties  of  maize  and  wheat ! The  expla- 
nation is  obvious ; the  seeds  alone  are  valued  in  our  cereals,  and 
thejr  variations  have  been  selected;  whereas  the  seeds,  seed-pods, 
and  flowers  have  been  utterly  neglected  in  the  cabbage,  whilst 
many  useful  v^ariations  in  their  leaves  and  stems  have  been  noticed 
and  preserved  from  an  extremely  remote  period,  for  cabbages  wxre 
cultivated  by  the  old  Celts. ®^ 

It  would  be  useless  to  give  a classified  description®®  of  the 
numerous  races,  sub-races,  and  varieties  of  the  cabbage;  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  Dr.  Bindley  has  lately  proposed''®  a system 
founded  on  the  state  of  development  of  the  terminal  and  lateral 


‘Journal  de  la  Soc.  Imp.  d’Horti- 
culture,’  1855,  p.  254,  quoted  from 
‘ Gartenflora,’  Ap.  1855. 

Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espece,’  tom.  ii.  p. 
52 ; Metzger,  ‘ Syst.  Beschreihuug 
icr  Kult.  Kohlarteu,’  1833,  s.  f 

Rpguier,  ‘ De  rEcouomie  Fu  'diqu-^ 


des  Celtes,’  1818,  p.  438. 

See  the  elder  De  Candolle,  in 
‘Transact,  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  v. ; and 
Metzger  ‘ Kohlarten,’  &c. 

‘Gardener’s  Chronii  le,’  185i).  p 

992. 


Chap.  IX. 


CABBAGES. 


343 


leaf-buds.  Thus:  I.  All  the  leaf- buds  active  and  oi3en,  as  in  the 
wild-cabbage,  kail,  &c.  II.  All  the  leaf-buds  active,  but  forming 
heads,  as  in  Brussel-sprouts,  &c.  III.  Terminal  leaf-bud  alone 
active,  forming  a head  as  in  common  cabbages,  savoys,  &c.  IV. 
Terminal  leaf-bud  alone  active,  and  open,  with  most  of  the  flowers 
abortive  and  succulent,  as  in  the  cauliflower  and  broccoli.  Y.  All 
the  leaf-buds  active  and  open,  with  most  of  the  flowers  abortive 
and  succulent,  as  in  the  sprout ing-broccoli.  This  latter  variety  is 
a new  one,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  common  broccoli,  as 
Brussel-sprouts  do  to  common  cabbages;  it  suddenly  appeared 
in  a bed  of  common  broccoli,  and  was  found  faithfully  to  transmit 
its  newly-acquired  and  remarkable  characters. 

The  principal  kinds  of  cabbage  existed  at  least  as  early  as  the 
sixteenth  century,’'*^  so  that  'numerous  modifications  of  structure 
have  been  inherited  for  a long  period.  This  fact  is  the  more 
remarkable  as  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  crossing  of 
the  different  kinds.  To  give  proof  of  this : I raised  233  seedlings 
from  cabbages  of  different  kinds,  which  had  purposelj'^  been  planted 
near  each  other,  and  of  the  seedlings  no  less  than  155  were  plainly 
deteriorated  and  mongrelized ; nor  w^ere  the  remaining  78  all 
perfectly  true.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  many  permanent 
varieties  have  been  formed  by  intentional  or  accidental  crosses; 
for  such  crossed  plants  are  found  to  be  very  inconstant.  One 
kind,  however,  called  Cottager’s  Kail,”  has  lately  been  produced 
by  crossing  common  kail  and  Brussel-sj)routs,  recrossed  with 
purple  broccoli,^^  and  is  said  to  be  true ; but  plants  raised  by  me 
were  not  nearly  so  constant  in  character  as  any  common  kind  of 
cabbage. 

Although  most  of  the  kinds  keep  true  if  carefully  preserved  from 
crossing,  yet  the  seed-beds  must  be  yearly  examined,  and  a few 
seedlings  ai’e  generally  found  false ; but  even  in  this  case  the  force 
of  inheritance  is  shown,  for,  as  Metzger  has  remarked  when 
speaking  of  Brussel-sprouts,  the  variations  generally  keep  to  their 

unter  art,”  or  main  race.  But  in  order  that  any  kind  may  be 
truly  propagated  there  must  be  no  great  change  in  the  conditions 
of  life;  thus  cabbages  will  not  form  heads  in  hot  countries, 
and  the  same  thing  has  been  observed  wiili  an  English  variety 
grown  during  an  extremely  warm  and  damp  autumn  near  Paris.^“ 
Extremely  poor  soil  also  affects  the  characters  of  certain  varieties. 

Most  authors  believe  that  all  the  races  are  descended  from  the 
wild  cabbage  found  on  the  western  shores  of  Europe ; but  Alph. 
De  Candolle  forcibly  argues,  on  historical  and  other  grounds,  that 
it  is  more  probable  that  two  or  three  closely  allied  forms,  generally 
ranked  as  distinct  species,  still  living  in  the  Mediterranean  region, 


Alph.  De  Candolle,  ‘Geograph. 
Bet.’  pp.  842  and  989. 

‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  Feb.  1858, 

p.  128. 


‘ Kohlarten,’  s.  22. 

Godron,  ‘ De  I’Esp^ce,’  tom.  ii.  p 
52  ; Metzger,  ‘ Kohlarten,’  s.  22. 

‘ Geograph.  Bet.,’  p.  840, 


344 


CULINARY  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


arc  the  parents,  now  all  commingled  together,  of  the  yarions 
cultivated  kinds.  In  the  same  manner  as  we  have  often  seen  with 
domesticated  animals,  the  supposed  multiple  origin  of  the  cabbage 
throws  no  light  on  the  characteristic  differences  between  the 
cultiyated  forms.  If  our  cabbages  are  the  descendants  of  three 
or  four  distinct  species,  every  trace  of  any  sterility  which  may 
originally  have  existed  between  them  is  now  lost,  for  none  of  the 
varieties  can  be  kept  distinct  without  scrupulous  care  to  prevent 
intercrossing. 

The  other  cultivated  forms  of  the  genus  Brassica  are  descended, 
according  to  the  view  adopted  by  Godron  and  Metzger from  two 
species,  B.  na^ms  and  rap:t ; but  according  to  other  botanists  from 
three  species ; whilst  others  again  strongly  suspect  that  all  these 
forms,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  ought  to  be  ranked  as  a single 
species.  Brassica  napus  has  given  rise  to  two  large  groups,  namely, 
Swedish  turnips  (believed  to  be  of  hybrid  origin)  and  Colzas, 
the  seeds  of  which  yield  oil.  Brassica  rapa  (of  Koch)  has  also 
given  rise  to  two  races,  namely,  common  turnips  and  the  oil-giving 
rape.  The  evidence  is  unusually  clear  that  these  latter  plants, 
though  so  different  in  external  axjpearance,  belong  to  the  same 
species;  for  the  turnip  has  been  observed  by  Koch  and  Godron 
to  lose  its  thick  roots  in  uncultivated  soil;  and  when  rape  and 
turnips  are  sown  together  they  cross  to  such  a degree^  that 
scarcely  a single  plant  comes  true.'^^  Metzger  by  culture  converted 
the  biennial  or  winter  rape  into  the  annual  or  summer  rape, — 
varieties  which  have  been  thought  by  some  authors  to  be  specifically 
distinct.'^® 

In  the  production  of  large,  fleshy,  turnip-like  stems,  we  have 
a case  of  analogous  variation  in  three  forms  which  are  generally 
considered  as  distinct  species.  But  scarcely  any  modification  seems 
so  easily  acquired  as  a succulent  enlargement  of  the  stem  or  root — 
that  is,  a store  of  nutriment  laid  up  for  the  plant’s  own  future  use. 
We  see  this  in  our  radishes,  beet,  and  in  the  less  generally  known 
“ turnip-rooted  ” celery,  and  in  the  finocchio,  or  Italian  variety  of  the 
common  fennel.  Mr.  Buckman  has  lately  proved  by  his  interesting 
experiments  how  quickly  the  roots  of  the  wild  parsnip  can  be 
enlarged,  as  Vilmorin  formerly  proved  in  the  case  of  the  carrot.'® 


Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espfece,*  tom.  li.  p. 
54  ; Metzger,  ‘ Kohlarten,’  s.  10. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chron.  and  Agricult. 
Gazette,’  1856,  p.  729.  Sce^  more 
especially,  ibid.,  1868,  p.  275:  the 
writer  asserts  that  he  planted  a variety 
of  cabbage  (.B.  oleraced)  close  to  turnips 
rapa)  and  raised  from  the  crossed 
seedlings  true  Swedish  turnips.  These 
latter  plants  ought,  therefore,  to  be 
classed  with  cabbages  or  turnips,  and 
not  under  B.  napus. 


’’’’  ‘ Gardener's  Chron.  and  Agricult. 
Gazette,’  1855,  p.  730. 

Metzger,  ‘ Kohlarten,’  s.  51. 

These  experiments  by  Vilmorin 
have  been  quoted  by  many  writers. 
An  eminent  botanist.  Prof.  Decaisne, 
has  lately  expressed  doubts  on  the 
subject  from  his  own  negative  results, 
but  these  cannot  be  valued  equally 
with  positiv'e  results.  On  the  other 
hand,  M.  Carribre  has  lately  stated 
(‘Gard.  Chronicle,’  1365,  p.  1154), 


Chap.  IX. 


PEAS. 


345 


This  latter  plant,  in  its  cultivated  state,  ditfers  in  scarcely  any 
character  from  the  wild  English  carrot,  except  in  general  luxuri- 
ance and  in  the  size  and  quality  of  its  roots;  but  ten  varieties, 
differing  in  the  colour,  shape,  and  quality  of  the  root,  are  cultivated 
in  England  and  come  true  by  seed.®®  Hence  with  the  carrot,  as 
in  so  many  other  cases,  for  instance  with  the  numerous  varieties 
and  sub-varieties  of  the  radish,  that  part  of  the  plant  which  is 
valued  by  man,  falsely  appears  alone  to  have  varied.  . The  truth 
is  that  variations  in  this  part  alone  have  been  selected ; and  the 
seedlings  inheriting  a tendency  to  vary  in  the  same  way,  analogous 
modifications  have  been  again  and  again  selected,  untiE  af  last 
a great  amount  of  change  has  been  effected. 

With  respect  to  the  radish,  M.  Carriere,  by  sowing  the  seed  of 
the  wild  Baphanus  raphanistrum  in  rich  soil,  and  by  continued 
selection  during  several  generations,  raised  many  varieties,  closely 
like  the  cultivated  radish  (i?.  sativus)  in  their  roots,  as  well  as  the 
wonderful  Chinese  vanety,  R.  caudatus : (see  ‘ Journal  d’Agriculture 
pratique,’  t.  i.,  1869,  p.  159 ; also  a separate  essay,  ^ Origine  des 
Plants  Homestiques,’  1869.)  Baphanus  raphanistrum  and  sativus 
have  often  been  ranked  as  distinct  species,  and  owing  to  differences 
in  their  fruit  even  as  distinct  genera ; but  Professor  Hoffman  Q Bot, 
ZeitungV  1872,  p.  482;  has  now  shewn  that  these  differences,  re- 
maikable  as  they  are,  graduate  away,  the  fruit  of  R.  caudatus 
being  intermediate.  By  cultivating  R.  raphanistrum  during  several 
generations  (ibid.,  1873,  p.  9),  Professor  Hoffman  also  obtained  plants 
bearing  fruits  like  those  of  R.  sativus. 

I’ea  (Pisum  sativum'). — Most  botanists  look  at  the  garden-pea 
as  specifically  distinct  from  the  field-pea  (P.  aryense).  The  latter 
exists  in  a wild  state  in  Southern  Europe;  but  the  aboriginal 
parent  of  the  garden-pea  has  been  found  by  one  collector  alone, 
as  he  states,  in  the  Crimea.®^  Andrevv^  Knight  crossed,  as  I am 
informed  by  the  Eev.  A.  Fitch,  the  field-pea  with  a well-known 
garden  variety,  the  Prussian  pea,  and  the  cross  seems  to  have  been 
perfectly  fertile.  Dr.  Alefeld  has  recently  studied®^  the  genus 
with  care,  and,  after  having  cultivated  about  fifty  varieties,  concludes 
that  certainly  they  all  belong  to  the  same  species.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing fact  already  alluded  to,  that,  according  to  0.  Heer,®®  the  peas 
found  in  the  lake-habitations  of  Switzerland  of  the  Stone  and 
Bronze  ages,  belong  to  an  extinct  variety,  with  exceedingly  small 


that  he  took  seed  from  a wild  carrot, 
growing  far  from  any  cultivated  land, 
and  even  in  the  first  generation  the 
Toots  of  his  seedlings  differed  in  being 
spindle-shaped,  longer,  softer,  and  less 
fibrous  than  those  of  the  wild  plant.- 
From  these  seedlings  he  raised  several 
distinct  varieties. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Encyclop.  of  Garden- 
ag,’  p.  835. 


Alph.  De  Gandoll®,  ‘ Geograph. 
Bot.,’  960.  Mr.  Bentham  (‘  Hort. 
Journal,’  vol.  ix.  (1855),  p.  141) 
believes  that  garden  and  field  peas 
belong  to  the  same  species,  and  in  this 
respect  he  differs  from  Dr.  Targioni. 
‘Botanische  Zeitung,’  1860,  s. 

204. 

‘Die  Pflanzen  der  Ffahlbaufcen, 
1866,  s.  23. 


CULINAKY  PLANTS. 


CllAl’.  IX. 


rM() 

seeds,  allied  to  P.  arvense  or  the  field-pea.  The  varieties  of  the 
common  garden-pea  are  numerous,  ami  differ  considerably  from 
one  another.  For  comparison  I planted  at  the  same  time  forty-one, 
English  and  French  varieties.  They  differed  greatly  in  height, — 
namely  from  between  6 and  12  inches  to  8 feet, in  manner  of 
growth,  and  in  period  of  maturity.  Some  differ ' in  general  aspect 
even  while  only  two  or  three  inches  in  height.  The  stems  of  the 
Prussian  pea  are  much  branched.  The  tall  kinds  have  larger 
leaves  than  the  dwarf  kinds,  but  not  in  strict  proportion  to  their 
height : — Hair’s  Dw  nf  Monmouth  has  very  large  leaves,  and  the 
Fois  nain  hatif,  and  the  moderately  tall  Blue  Prussian,  have  leaves 
about  two-thirds  of  the  size  of  the  tallest  kind.  In  the  Panecroft 
the  leaflets  are  rather  small  and  a little  pointed ; in  the  Qiieen  of 
Dwarfs  rather  rounded ; and  in  the  Queen  of  Krujland  broad  and 
large.  In  these  three  peas  the  slight  differences  in  the  shape  of  the 
leaves  are  accompanied  by  slight  differences  in  colour.  In  the 
Pois  geant  sans  parchemin,  which  bears  purple  flowers,  the  leaflets 
in  the  young  plant  are  edged  with  red ; and  in  all  the  peas  with 
purple  flowers  the  stipules  are  marked  with  red. 

In  the  different  varieties,  one,  two,  or  several  flowers  in  a small 
cluster,  are  borne  on  the  same  peduncle ; and  this  is  a difference 
which  is  considered  of  specific  value  in  some  of  the  Leguminosse. 
In  all  the  varieties  the  flowers  closely  resemble  each  other  except 
in  colour  and  size.  They  are  generally  white,  sometimes  purple, 
but  the  colour  is  inconstant  even  in  the  same  variety.  In  li  'arner’s 
Emperor,  which  is  a tall  kind,  the  flowers  are  nearly  double  the 
size  of  the  Pois  nain  hat  if ; but  Hairs  Dwarf  Monmouth,  which 
has  large  leaves,  likewise  has  large  flowers.  The  calyx  in  the  Victoria 
Marrow  is  large,  and  in  Bishop's  Long  Pod  the  sepals  are  rather 
narrow.  In  no  otlier  kind  is  there  any  difference  in  the  flower. 

The  pods  and  seeds,  which  with  natural  species  afford  such 
constant  characters,  differ  greatly  in  the  cultivated  varieties  of  the 
pea;  and  these  are  the  valuable,  and  consequently  the  selected 
parts.  Sugar  pea^,  or  Pois  sans  parchemin,  are  remarkable  from 
their  thin  pods,  which,  whilst  young,  are  cooked  and  eaten  whole ; 
and  in  this  group,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Gordon  includes  eleven 
sub- varieties,  it  is  the  pod  which  differs  most ; thus  Ijewis’s  Negro- 
podded  pea  has  a straight,  bruad,  smooth,  and  dark- purple  pod, 
with  the  husk  not  so  thin  as  in  the  other  kinds ; the  pod  of  another 
variety  is  extremely  bowed;  that  of  the  Pois  geant  it  much  pointed 
at  the  extremity ; and  in  the  variety  a grands  cosses  ” the  peas 
are  seen  through  the  husk  in  so  cons|  iicuous  a manner  that  the  pod, 
especially  when  dry,  can  hardly  at  first  bo  recognised  as  that  of  a pea. 

In  the  ordinary  varieties  the  iDods  also  differ  much  in  size;— 
in  colour,  that  of  Woodford’s  Green  Marrow  being  bright-green 


A variety  called  the  Rounciva  series),  vol.  i.,  IS.Io,  p.  374,  fruic 
attains  this  height,  as  is  stated  by  Mr.  which  paper  I have  taken  some  facts 
3ordou  in  ‘ Transact.  Hoit.  Soc.’  (2nd 


Chap  IX. 


PEAS. 


847 


when  dry,  instead  of  pale  brown,  and  that  of  the  pnrple-podded 
pea  being  expressed  by  its  name ; — in  smoothness,  that  of  Banecroft 
being  remarkably  glossy,  whereas  that  of  the  'Ne  plus  ultra  is 
rugged ; in  being  either  nearly  cylindrical,  or  broad  and  flat 
in  being  pointed  at  the  end,  as  in  ThurstorCs  Relinnce,  or  much 
truncated,  as  in  the  American  Diuarf.  In  the  Auvergne  pea  the 
whole  end  of  the  pod  is  bowed  upwards.  In  the  Queen  of  the  Dwarfs 
and  in  Scimitar  peas  the  pod  is  almost  dliptic  in  shape.  I here 
give  drawings  of  the  four  most  distinct  pods  produced  by  the 
plants  cultivated  by  me.  -- — . , 


I.  ir.  jii  lY. 


a b c d 


Fiir.  41.— Bods  and  Peas.  I.  Queen  of  Dwarfs.  II.  American  Dwarf,  ill.  Tlnirsttai’s 
Peliance. — IV  Pois  Geant  sans  parcbemin.  a.  Dan  O’Rourke  Pea.  b.  Queen  of  Dwarn 
Pea.  c.  Knight’s  Tall  White  Marrow,  d.  Lewis’s  Ke-ru  Pea. 


348 


CULINARY  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX 


In  the  pea  itself  we  have  every  tint  between  almost  pure  white, 
brown,  yellow,  and  intense  green;  in  the  varietits  of  ihQ’sugar  peun 
we  have  these  same  tints,  together  with  red  passing  through  fine 
purple  into  a dark  chocolate  tint.  These  colours  are  either  uniform 
or  distributed  in  dots,  stria),  or  moss-like  marks;  they  depend 
in  some  cases  on  the  colour  of  the  cotyledons  seen  through  the 
skin,  and  in  other  cases  on  the  outer  coats  of  the  pea  itself.  In 
the  different  varieties,  the  pods  contain,  according  to  Mr.  Gordon, 
from  eleven  or  twelve  to  only  four  or  five  peas.  The  largest  peas 
are  nearly  twice  as  much  in  diameter  as  the  smallest ; and  the 
latter  are  not  always  borne  by  the  most  dwarfed  kinds.  Peas  differ 
much  in  shape,  being  smooth  and  spherical,  smooth  and  oblong, 
nearly  oval  in  the  Queen  of  the  and  nearly  cubical  and 

crumpled  in  many  of  the  larger  kinds. 

With  respect  to  the  value  of  the  differences  between  the  chief 
varieties,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  if  one  of  the  tall  Sugar-peas, 
with  purple  flowers,  thin-skinned  pods  of  an  extraordinary  shape, 
including  large,  dark-purple  peas,  grew  wild  by  the  side  of  the 
lowly  Queen  of  the  with  white  flowers,  greyish-green,  rounded 

leaves,  scimitar-like  pods,  containing  oblong,  smooth,  pale-coloured 
peas,  which  became  mature  at  a different  season : or  by  the  side 
of  one  of  the  gigantic  sorts,  like  the  Champion  of  England,  with 
leaves  of  great  size,  pointed  pods,  and  large,  green,  crumpled, 
almost  cubical  peas, — all  three  kinds  would  be  ranked  as  distinct 
species. 

Andrew  Knight  has  observed  that  the  varieties  of  peas  keep 
very  true,  because  they  are  not  crossed  by  insects.  As  far  as  the 
fact  of  keeping  true  is  concerned,  I hear  from  Mr.  Masters  of 
Canterbury,  well  known  as  the  originator  of  several  new  kinds, 
that  certain  varieties  have  remained  constant  for  a considerable 
time, — for  instance,  Knight's  Blue  Dwarf,  which  came  out  about 
the  year  1820.*^®  But  the  greater  number  of  varieties  have  a 
singularly  short  existence : thus  Loudon  remarks  that  “ sorts 
which  were  highly  approved  in  1821,  are  now,  in  1833,  nowhere  to 
be  found ;”  and  on  comparing  the  lists  of  1833  with  those  of  1855, 
I find  that  nearly  all  the  varieties  have  changed.  Mr.  Masters 
informs  me  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  causes  some  varieties  to  lose 
their  character.  As  with  other  plants,  certain  varieties  can  be 
propagated  truly,  whilst  others  show  a determined  tendency  to 
vary ; thus  two  peas  differing  in  shape,  one  round  and  the  other 
wrinkled,  were  found  by  Mr.  Masters  within  the  same  pod,  but  the 
plants  raised  from  the  wrinkled  kind  always  evinced  a strong 
tendency  to  produce  round  peas.  Mr.  Masters  also  raised  from  a 
plant  of  another  variety  four  distinct  sub-varieties,  which  bore  blue 
and  round,  white  and  round,  blue  and  wrinkled,  and  white  and 


‘ Phii.  Tract.’  1799,  p.  196.  ‘Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,’  p 

‘ Gardener’s  Magazine,’  vol.  i.,  823. 

18267,  p.  153. 


CuAP.  LX 


PEAS. 


349 


wrinkled  peas ; and  altliougli  he  sowed  these  four  varieties  separately 
during  several  successive  years,  each  kind  always  reproduced  all 
four  kinds  mixed  together ! 

With  respect  to  the  varieties  not  naturally  intercrossing,  I have 
ascertained  that  the  pea,  which  in  this  res})ect  differs  from  some 
other  Leguminosse,  is  perfectly  fertile  without  the  aid  of  insects. 
Yet  I have  seen  humble-bees  whilst  sucking  the  nectar  depress  the 
keel-petals,  and  become  so  thickly  dusted  with  pollen,  that  it  could 
hardly  fail  to  be  left  on  the  stigma  of  the  next  flower  which  was 
visited.  Nevertheless,  distinct  varieties  growing  closely  together 
rarely  cross;  and  I have  reason  to  believe  that  this  is  due  to  their 
stigmas  being  prematurely  fertilised  in  this  country  by  pollen  from 
the  same  flower.  The  horticulturists  who  raise  seed-peas  are  thus 
enabled  to  plant  distinct  varieties  close  together  without  any  bad 
consequences ; and  it  is  certain,  as  I have  myself  found,  that  true 
seed  may  be  saved  during  at  least  several  generations  under  these 
circumstances.®®  Mr.  Titch  raised,  as  he  informs  me,  one  variety 
for  twenty  years,  and  it  always  came  true,  though  grown  close  to 
other  varieties.  From  the  analogy  of  kidney-beans  I should 
have  expected  ®®  that  varieties  thus  circumstanced  would  have  oc- 
casionally crossed;  and  I shall  give  in  the  eleventh  chapter  two  cases 
of  this  having  occurred,  as  shown  (in  a manner  hereafter  to  be  ex- 
plained) by  the  pollen  of  the  one  variety  having  acted  directly  on  the 
seeds  of  the  other.  Whether  many  of  the  new  varieties  which  in- 
cessantly appear  are  due  to  such  occasional  and  accidental  crosses,  I 
do  not  know.  Nor  do  I know  whether  the  short  existence  of  almost 
all  the  numerous  varieties  is  the  result  of  mere  change  of  fashion,  or 
of  their  having  a weak  constitution,  from  being  the  product  of  long- 
continued  self-fertilisation.  It  may,  however,  be  noticed  that  several 
of  Andrew  Knight’s  varieties,  which  have  endured  longer  than  most 
kinds,  were  raised  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  by  artificial 
crosses ; some  of  them,  I believe,  were  still  vigorous  in  1860 ; 
but  now,  in  1865,  a writer,  speaking  of  Knight’s  four  kinds  of 
marrows,  says,  they  have  acquired  a famous  history,  but  their 
glory  has  departed. 

With  respect  to  Beans  (Faba  vulgaris),  I will  say  but  little.  Dr. 
Alefeld  has  given  short  diagnostic  characters  of  forty  varieties. 
Everyone  who  has  seen  a collection  must  have  been  struck  with 
the  great  difference  in  shape,  thickness,  proportional  length  and 
breadth,  colour,  and  size  which  beans  present.  What  a contrast 
between  a Windsor  and  Horse-bean!  As  in  the  case  of  the  pea, 
our  existing  varieties  were  preceded  during  the  Bronze  age  in 


**  See  Dr.  Anderson  to  the  same 
cffeot  in  the  ‘ Bath  Soc.  Agricultural 
Papers,’  vol.  iv.  p.  87. 

I have  published  full  details  of 
experiments  on  this  subject  in  the 


‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1857,  Oct. 
25. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1865,  p 

387. 

‘ Bonplandia,’  .v.,  1862,  s.  348 


350 


CULINARY  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX 


Switz(!rlaTid  by  a peculiar  and  now  extinct  variety  producing 
very  small  beans.^^ 

{Solarium  tuheromm'). — There  is  little  doubt  about  the 
parentage  of  this  plant ; for  the  cultivated  varieties  differ  extremely 
little  in  general  appearance  from  the  wild  species,  which  can  be 
recognised  in  its  native  land  at  tlie  first  glance.^^  The  varieties 
cultivated  in  Britain  are  numerous;  thus  Lawson®^  gives  a de- 
scription of  175  kinds.  I planted  eighteen  kinds  in  adjoining 
rows ; their  stems  and  leaves  differed  but  little,  and  in  several 
cases  there  was  as  great  a difference  between  the  individuals  of 
the  same  variety  as  between  the  different  varieties.  The  flower 
varied  in  size,  and  in  colour  between  white  and  purple,  but  in  no 
other  respect,  except  that  in  one  kind  the  sepals  were  somewhat 
elongated.  One  strange  variety  has  been  described  w hich  always 
produces  two  sorts  of  flowers,  the  first  double  and  sterile,  the 
second  single  and  fertile.®^  The  fruit  or  berries  also  differ,  but 
only  in  a slight  degree.^^  The  varieties  are  liable  in  very  different 
degree  to  the  attack  of  the  Colorado  potato-beetle.®* 

The  tubers,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a ’wonderful  amount  of 
diversity.  This  fact  accords  with  the  principle  that  the  valuable 
and  selected  parts  of  all  cultivated  productions  present  the  greatest 
amount  of  modification.  They  differ  much  in  size  and  shape,  being 
globular,  oval,  flattened,  kidney-like,  or  cylindrical.  One  variety 
from  Peru  is  described  ®®  as  being  quite  straight,  and  at  least  six 
inches  in  length,  though  no  thicker  than  a man’s  finger.  The  eyes 
or  buds  differ  in  form,  position,  and  colour.  The  manner  in  which 
the  tubers  are  arranged  on  the  so-called  roots  or  rhizomes  is 
different ; thus,  in  the  gurken-kartoffeln  they  form  a pyramid  with 
the  apex  downwards,  and  in  another  variety  they  bury  themselves 
deep  in  the  ground.  The  roots  themselves  run  either  near  the 
surface  or  deep  in  the  ground.  The  tubers  also  differ  in  smoothness 


Heer,  ‘ Di>3  Pflau^ien  der  Pfahl- 
aaten,’  1866,  s.  22. 

Mr.  Bentt.am  informs  me  that  in 
Poitou  and  the  adjoining  parts  of 
F ranee,  varieties  of  Phascolus  vulgaris 
are  extremely  numerous,  and  so  dif- 
ferent that  they  were  described  by  Savi 
as  distinct  species.  Mr.  Bentham 
believes  that  all  are  descended  from 
an  unknown  eastern  species.  Al- 
though the  varieties  differ  so  greatly 
in  stature  and  in  their  seeds,  “ there 
is  a remarkable  sameness  in  the  ne- 
glected characters  of  foliage  and 
dowers,  and  especially  in  the  brac- 
tonles,  an  insignificant  char.acter  in 
the  eyes  even  of  botanists.” 

®‘  Darwin,  ‘ Journal  of  Researches,’ 


184.5,  p.  285.  Sabine,  in  ‘Transact 
Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  V.  p.  249. 

‘Synopsis  of  the  Vegetable 
Products  of  Scotland,’  quoted  in 
Wilson’s  ‘ Bi’itish  Farming,’  p.  317. 

Sir  G.  Mackenzie,  in  ‘ Gardener’s 
Chronicle,’  1845,  p.  790. 

Putsche  und  Vertuch,  ‘ Versuch 
einer  Monographie  der  Kartoffeln,’ 
1819,  s.  9,  15.  See  also  Dr.  Anderson’s 
‘ Recreations  in  Agriculture,’  vol.  iv. 
p.  325. 

Walsh,  ‘The  American  Entomo- 
logist,’ 1869,  p.  160.  Also  S.  Tenney, 
‘ The  American  Naturalist,’  May,  1871, 
p.  171. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1862,  p 

1052. 


CuAr.  IX. 


POTATOES. 


351 


and  colour,  being  externally  white,  red,  pnrple,  or  almost  black, 
and  internally  white,  yellow,  or  almost  black.  They  differ  in 
flavour  and  quality,  being  either  waxy  or  mealy  ; in  their  period  of 
maturity,  and  in  their  capacity  for  long  preservation. 

As  with  many  otlier  plants  which  have  been  long  propagated  by 
bulbs,  tubers,  cuttings,  (fee.,  by  which  means  the  same  individual  is 
exposed  during  a length  of  time  to  diversified  conditions,  seedling 
potatoes  generally  display  innumerable  slight  differences.  Several 
varieties,  even  when  propagated  by  tubers,  are  far  from  constant,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Bud- variation.  Br.  Anderson 
procured  seed  from  an  Irish  purj)le  potato,  which  grew  far  from 
any  other  kind,  so  that  it  could  not  at  least  in  this  generation  have 
been  crossed,  yet  the  many  seedlings  varied  in  almost  every  possible 
respect,  so  that scarcely  two  plants  were  exactly  alike.”  Some  of 
the  plants  which  closely  resembled  each  other  above  ground,  pro- 
duced extremely  dissimilar  tubers ; and  some  tubers  which  externally 
could  hardly  be  distinguished,  differed  widely  in  quality  when 
cooked.  Even  in  this  case  of  extreme  variability,  the  parent-stock 
had  some  influence  on  the  progeny,  for  the  greater  number  of  the 
seedlings  resembled  in  some  degree  the  parent  Irish  potato.  Kidney 
potatoes  must  be  ranked  amongst  the  most  highly  cultivated 
and  artificial  races;  nevertheless  their  peculiarities  can  often  be 
strictly  propagated  by  seed.  A great  authority,  Mr.  Eivers,^°^ 
states  that  seedlings  from  the  ash-leaved  kidney  always  bear  a 
strong  resemblance  to  their  parent.  Seedlings  from  the  fluke- 
kidney  are  still  more  remarkable  for  their  adherence  to  their  parent 
stock,  for,  on  closely  observing  a great  number  during  two  seasons, 
I have  not  been  able  to  observe  the  least  difference,  either  in  earliness, 
productiveness,  or  in  the  size  or  shape  of  their  tubers.”  ? 


100  ‘ Bath  Society  Agricult.  Papers,’  loi  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1863,  p. 
vol.  V.  p.  127.  And  ‘ Eecreations  in  643. 

Agriculture,’  vol.  v.  p.  86. 


352 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PLANTS  — FRUITS— ORNAMENTAL  TREES — FLOWERS. 

FRUIT’S — GRAPES — VARY  IN  ODD  AND  TRIFLING  PARTICULARS.-^ MUL- 
BERRY— THE  ORANGE  GROUP — SINGULAR  RESULTS  FROM  CROSSING. 

PEACH  AND  NECTARINE  — BUD  VARIATION  — ANALOGOUS  VARIATION  — 

RELATION  TO  THE  ALMOND, APIfICOT. PLUMS  — VARIATION  IN 

THEIR  STONES. CHERRIES — SINGULAR  VARIETIES  OF. APPLE. 

PEAR. STRAWBERRY — INTERBLENDING  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  FORMS. 

GOOSEBERRY — STEADY  INCREASE  IN  SIZE  OF  THE  FRUIT — VARIETIES  OF. 
WALNUT. NUT. CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS— WONDERFUL  VARIA- 
TION OF. 

ORNAMENTAL  TREES — their  variation  in  degree  and  kind — 

ASH -TREE — SCOTCH-FIR — HAWTHORN. 

FLOWERS — Ml  LTIPLE  ORIGIN  OF  MANY  KINDS — VARIATION  IN  CONSTITU- 
TIONAL PECULIARITIES — KIND  OP  VARIATION. ROSES — SEVERAL  SPECIES 

CULTIVATED.  PANSY.  DAHLIA.  HYACINTH  —HISTORY  AND 

VARIATION  OF. 

The  Vine  {Vitis  vinifera). — The  best  authorities  consider  all  onr 
grapes  as  the  descendants  of  one  species  which  now  growls  wild  in 
western  Asia,  which  grew  wild  during  the  Bronze  age  in  Italy, ^ and 
which  has  recently  been  found  fossil  in  a tufaceous  deposit  in  the 
south  of  France.^  Some  authors,  however,  entertain  much  doubt 
about  the  single  parentage  of  our  cultivated  varieties,  owing  to  the 
number  of  semi-wild  forms  found  in  Southern  Europe,  especially  as 
described  by  Clemente®  in  a forest  in  Spain;  but  as  the  grape  sown 
itself  freely  in  Southern  Europe,  and  as  several  of  the  chief  kinds 
transmit  their  characters  by  seed,^  whilst  others  are  extremely 
variable,  the  existence  of  many  different  escaped  forms  could  hardly 
-fail  to  occur  in  countries  wdiere  this  plant  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  remotest  antiquity.  That  the  vine  varies  much  when  propagated 
by  seed,  w^e  may  infer  from  the  largely  increased  number  of  varieties 
since  the  earlier  historical  records.  New  hot-house  varieties  are 


* Heer,  ‘ Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbauten,’ 
1866,  s.  28. 

* Alph.  De  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph. 
Bot.,’  p.  872 ; Dr.  A.  Targioni- 
Tozzetti,  m ‘Jour.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol  ix. 
p.  133.  For  the  fossil  vine  found  by 
Dr.  G.  Planchon,  see  ‘ Nat.  Hist. 
Review,’  1865,  April,  p.  224.  See 
also  the  valuable  works  of  M.  do 


Saporta  on  the  ‘Tertiary  Plants  of 
France.’ 

^ Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espece,’  tom.  ii.  p. 

100. 

Nee  an  account  of  M.  Vibert’s  ex- 
periments, by  Alex.  Jordan,  in  ‘ Mem, 
de  I’Acad.  de  Lyon,’  tom.  ii.  1852,  p. 
108. 


Chap.  X. 


VINES. 


35:1 

produced  almost  every  year;  for  instance,®  a golden-coloured 
variety  lias  been  recently  raised  in  England  from  a black  grape 
without  the  aid  of  a cross.  Van  Mons®  reared  a multitude  ol 
varieties  from  the  seed  of  one  vine,  which  w^as  completely  separated 
from  all  others,  so  that  there  could  not,  at  least  in  this  generation, 
have  been  any  crossing,  and  the  seedlings  presented  “ les  analogues 
de  toutes  les  sortes,”  and  ditfercd  in  almost  every  possible  charactei 
both  in  the  fruits  and  foliage. 

The  cultivated  varieties  are  extremely  numerous ; Count  Odart 
says  that  he  will  not  deny  that  there  may  exist  throughout  the 
world  700  or  800,  perhaps  even  1000  varieties,  but  not  a third  of 
these  have  any  value.  In  the  catalogue  of  fruit  cultivated  in  the 
Horticultural  Gardens  of  London,  published  in  18d2,  99  varieties 
are  enumerated.  Wherever  the  grape  is  grown  many  varieties 
occur : Pallas  describes  24  in  the  Crimea,  and  Burnes  mentions  10 
in  Cabool.  The  classification  of  the  varieties  has  much  perplexed 
writers,  and  Count  Odart  reduced  to  a geographical  system;  but 
I will  not  enter  on  this  subject,  nor  on  the  many  and  great  dif- 
ferences between  the  varieties.  I will  merely  specify  a few  curious 
and  trifling  peculiarities,  all  taken  from  OdarPs  highly  esteemed 
work,"^  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  diversified  variability  of  this 
plant.  Simon  has  classed  grapes  into  two  main  divisions,  those 
with  downy  leaves,  and  those  with  smooth  leaves,  but  he  admits 
that  in  one  variety,  namely  the  Eebazo,  the  leaves  are  either  smooth, 
or  downy;  and  Odart  (p.  70)  states  that  some  varieties  have  the 
nerves  alone,  and  other  varieties  their  young  leaves,  downy,  whilst 
the  old  ones  are  smooth.  The  Pedro- Ximenes  grape  (Odart,  p.  397) 
presents  a peculiarity  by  which  it  can  be  at  once  recognised  amongst 
a host  of  other  varieties,  namely,  that  wdien  the  fruit  is  nearly  ripe 
the  nerves  of  the  leaves  or  even  the  whole  surface  becomes  yellow. 
The  Barbera  d’Asti  is  well  marked  by  several  characters  (p.  426), 
amongst  others,  “ by  some  of  the  leaves,  and  it  is  always  the  lowest 
on  the  branches,  suddenly  becoming  of  a dark  red  colour.”  Several 
authors  in  classifying  grapes  have  founded  their  main  divisions  on 
the  berries  being  either  round  or  oblong ; and  Odart  admits  the 
value  of  this  character;  yet  there  is  one  variety,  the  Maccabeo 
(p.  71),  which  often  produces  small  round,  and  large  oblong,  berries 
in  the  same  bunch.  Certain  grapes  called  Nebbiolo  (p.  429)  present 
a constant  character,  sufficient  for  their  recognition,  namely,  “ the 
slight  adherence  of  that  part  of  the  pulp  which  surrounds  the  seeds 
to  the  rest  of  the  berry,  when  cut  through  transversely.”  A Ehenish 
variety  is  mentioned  (p.  228)  which  likes  a dry  soil;  the  fruit  ripens 
well,  but  at  the  moment  of  mat  irity,  if  much  rain  falls,  the  berries 
are  apt  to  rot ; on  the  other  hand,  the  fruit  of  a Swiss  variety  (p.  243) 
is  valued  for  well  sustaining  prolonged  humidity.  This  latter 


5 ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1864,  p.  p.  290. 

488.  Odart,  ‘ Ampelographie  Univer- 

« ‘ Arbres  Fruitiers,’  1836,  tom.  ii.  selle,’  1849. 

24 


554. 


FIIUITS  : 


CiiAr.  X. 


variety  sprouts  late  in  the  spring,  yet  matures  its  fruit  early ; other 
varieties  (p.  862)  have  the  fault  of  being  too  much  excited  by  the 
April  sun,  and  in  consequence  sutfer  from  frost.  A Styrian  variety 
(j).  254)  has  brittle  foot-stalks,  so  that  the  clusters  of  fruit  are 
often  blow^n  off;  this  variety  is  said  to  be  particularly  attractive  to 
wasps  and  bees.  Other  varieties  have  tough  stalks,  which  resist 
the  wind.  Many  other  variable  characters  could  be  given,  but  the 
foregoing  facts  are  sufficient  to  show  in  how  many  small  structural 
and  constitutional  details  the  vine  varies.  During  the  vine  disease 
in  France  certain  old  groups  of  varieties  ® have  suffered  far  more 
fiom  mildew  than  others.  Thus  “ the  group  of  Gliasselas,  so  rich 
in  varieties,  did  not  afford  a single  fortunate  exception certain 
other  groups  suffered  much  less ; the  true  old  Burgundy,  for  instance, 
was  comparatively  free  from  disease,  and  the  Carminat  likewise 
resisted  the  attack.  The  American  vines,  which  belong  to  a distinct 
species,  entirely  escaped  the  disease,  in  Fnince;  and  we  thus  see 
that  those  European  varieties  which  best  resist  the  disease  must 
have  acquired  in  a slight  degree  the  same  constitutional  peculiarities 
as  the  American  species. 

White  Mulbe try  {Morus  olha).—l  mention  this  plant  because  it 
has  varied  in  certain  characters,  namely,  in  the  texture  and  quality 
of  the  leaves,  fitting  them  to  serve  as  food  for  the  domesticated 
silkworm,  in  a manner  not  observed  with  other  plants ; but  this 
has  arisen  simply  from  such  variations  in  the  mulberry  having  been 
attended  to,  selected,  and  rendered  more  or  less  constant.  M.  de 
Quatrefages  ® briefly  describes  six  kinds  cultivated  in  one  valley  in 
France : of  these  the  amourouso  produces  excellent  leaves,  but  is 
rapidly  being  abandoned  because  it  produces  much  fruit  mingled 
with  the  leaves:  the  antofino  yields  deeply  cut  leaves  of  the  finest 
quality,  but  not  in  great  quantity : the  daro  is  much  sought  for 
because  the  leaves  can  be  easily  collected : lastly,  the  roso  bears 
strong  hardy  leaves,  produced  in  large  quantity,  but  with  the  one 
inconvenience,  that  they  are  best  adapted  for  the  worms  after  their 
fourth  moult.  MM.  Jacquemet-Bonnefont,  of  Lyon,  however,  remark 
in  their  catalogue  (1862)  that  two  sub- varieties  have  been  confounded 
under  the  name  of  the  roso,  one  having  leaves  too  thick  for  the 
caterpillars,  the  other  being  valuable  because  the  leaves  can  easily 
be  gathered  from  the  branches  without  the  bark  being  torn. 

In  India  the  mulberry  has  also  given  rise  to  many  varieties. 
The  Indian  form  is  thought  by  many  botanists  to  be  a distinct 
species;  but  as  Eoyle  remarks,^®  ‘‘so  many  varieties  have  been 
produced  by  cultivation  that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  they 


® M.  Bouchardat,  in  ‘ Comptes  Ren- 
dns,’  Dec.  1st,  1851,  quoted  in  ‘ Gar- 
dener’s Chron.,’  1852,  p.  435.  See 
also  C.  V.  Riley  on  the  manner  in 
which  some  few  of  the  varieties  of 
the  American  Labruscan  Vine  escape 
‘ho  attacks  of  the  Phylloxera:  ‘Fourth 


Annual  Report  on  the  Insects  oi 
Missouri,’  1872,  p.  63,  and  ‘ Fifth  Re- 
port,’ 1873,  p,  66. 

® ‘ Etudes  sur  les  Maladies  actuelle? 
d\i  Ver  a Sole,’  1859,  p.  321. 

‘ Productive  Resources  of  India, 
p 130. 


Chap  X. 


ORANGE  GROUP. 


3557 


all  belong  to  one  si-tecies  they  a.re,  as  he  adds,  nearly  as  nuni5pi(3s  if 
as  those  of  the  silkworm.  orange 

The  Orange  Group. — We  here  meet  with  great  confysion  leaves, 
specific  distinction  and  parentage  of  the  several  kinds.  GalJ  mixed 
who  almost  devoted  his  life-time  to  the  subject,  considers  thapes  and 
are  four  species,  namely,  sweet  and  bitter  oranges,  lemoiroj^c,  qj.  ^ 
citrons,  each  of  which  has  given  rise  to  whole  groups  of  varieties, ' 
monsters,  and  supposed  hybrids.  One  high  authority  believes 
that  these  four  reputed  species  are  all  varieties  of  the  wild  Citrus 
medica,  but  that  the  shaddock  ( decumana),  which  is  not  known 
in  a.  wild  state,  is  a distinct  species ; though  its  distinctness  is 
doubted  by  another  writer  of  great  authority  on  such  matters,” 
namely.  Dr.  Buchanan  Hamilton.  Alph.  De  Candolle, on  the 
other  hand — and  there  cannot  be  a more  capable  judge— advances 
what  he  considers  sufficient  evidence  of  the  orange  (he  doubts 
whether  the  bitter  and  sweet  kinds  are  specifically  distinct),  the 
lemon,  and  citron,  having  been  found  wild,  and  consequently  that 
they  are  distinct.  He  mentions  two  other  forms  cultivated  in  Japan 
and  Java,  which  he  ranks  undoubted  species;  he  speaks  rather 
more  doubtfully  about  the  shaddock,  which  varies  much,  and  has 
not  been  found  wild ; and  finally  he  considers  some  forms,  such  as 
Adam’s  apple  and  the  bergamotte,  as  probably  hybrids. 

I have  briefly  abstracted  these  opinions  for  the  sake  of  showing 
those  who  have  never  attended  to  such  subjects,  how  perplexing 
they  are.  It  would,  therefore,  be  useless  for  my  purpose  to  give  a 
sketch  of  the  conspicuous  differences  between  the  several  forms. 
Besides  the  ever- recurrent  difficulty  of  determining  whether  forms 
found  wild  are  truly  aboriginal  or  are  escaped  seedlings,  many  of 
the  forms,  which  must  be  ranked  as  varieties,  transmit  their 
characters  almost  perfectly  by  seed.  Sweet  and  bitter  oranges 
differ  in  no  important  respect  except  in  the  flavour  of  their  fruit, 
but  Gallesio^^  is  most  emphatic  that  both  kinds  can  be  propagated 
by  seed  with  absolute  certainty.  Consequently,  in  accordance  with 
his  simple  rule,  he  classes  them  as  distinct  species;  as  he  does 
sweet  and  bitter  almonds,  the  peach  and  nectarine,  &c.  He  admits, 
however,  that  the  soft-shelled  pine-tree  produces  not  only  soft- 
shelled  but  some  hard-shelled  seedlings,  so  that  a little  greater 
force  in  the  power  of  inheritance  would,  according  to  this  rule, 
raise  a soft-shelled  pine-tree  into  the  dignity  of  an  aboriginally 
created  species.  The  positive  assertion  made  by  Macfayden  that 


” ‘Traits  di:  Citrus,’  1811. 
* Teoritv  della  Riproduzioue  Vegetale,’ 
1816.  1 quote  chiefly  from  this 

second  work.  In  1839  Gallesio  pub- 
lished in  folio  ‘ Gli  Agrumi  dei  Giard. 
Bot.  di  Firenze,’  in  which  he  gives  a 
curious  diagram  of  the  supposed 
relationship  of  all  the  forms. 


Mr.  Bentham,  ‘ Review  of  Dr.  A. 
Targioni-Tozzetti,  ‘ Journal  of  Hort. 
Soc.,’  vol.  ix.  p.  133. 

‘ Geograph.  Bot.,’  p.  863. 

‘ Teoria  della  Riproduzione,’  pp. 
52-57. 

tiooker’s  ‘ Bot.  Misc.,’  vol.  i p 
302  ; Vol.  ii.  p 111. 


FRUITS  : 


Chap.  X. 


.56 


varieiips  of  s'vcct  oranges  produced  in  Jamaica,  according  to  tlie 
varieti.of  the  soil  in  which  they  are  sown,  either  sweet  or  bitter 
April  o,  is  j)robably  an  error;  for  M.  Alph.  De  Candolle  informs 
(jj.  25':it  since  the  publication  of  his  great  work  he  has  received 
often  bi^  fi’oni  Guiana,  the  Antilles,  and  Mauritius,  that  in  these 
vvonxeviox  sweet  oranges  faithfully  transmit  their  character.  Gallesio 
round  that  the  willow-leafed  and  the  Little  China  oranges  re- 
produced their  proper  leaves  and  fruit;  but  the  seedlings  were 
not  quite  equal  in  merit  to  their  parents.  The  red-Heshed  orange, 
on  the  other  hand,  fails  to  reproduce  itself.  Gallesio  also  observed 
that  the  seeds  of  several  other  singular  varieties  all  reproduced 
trees  having  a peculiar  physiognomy,  partly  resembling  their 
parent-forms.  I can  adduce  another  case : the  myrtle  leaved 
orange  is  ranked  by  all  authors  as  a variety,  but  is  very  distinct  in 
general  aspect ; in  my  father’s  greenhouse,  during  many  years,  it 
rarely  yielded  any  fruit,  but  at  last  produced  one ; and  a tree  thus 
raised  was  identical  with  the  parent-form. 

Another  and  more  serious  difficulty  in  determining  the  rank  of 
the  several  forms  is  that,  according  to  Gallesio,^*^  they  largely 
intercross  without  artificial  aid;  thus  he  positively  states  that 
seeds  taken  from  lemon-trees  (C.  lemonum)  growing  mingled  with 
the  citron  ( G.  medic  /),  which  is  generally  considered  as  a distinct 
species,  produced  a graduated  series  of  varieties  between  these  two 
forms.  Again,  an  Adam’s  apple  was  produced  from  the  seed  of  a 
sweet  orange,  which  grew  ch^se  to  lemons  and  citrons.  But  such 
facts  hardly  aid  us  in  determining  whether  to  rank  these  forms  as 
species  or  varieties ; for  it  is  now  known  that  undoubted  species  of 
Verbascum,  Cistus,  Primula,  Salix,  &c.,  frequently  cross  in  a state 
of  nature.  If  indeed  it  were  proved  that  plants  of  the  orange  tribe 
raised  from  these  crosses  were  even  partially  sterile,  it  would  be  a 
strong  argument  in  favour  of  their  rank  as  species.  Gallesio 
asserts  that  this  is  the  case ; but  he  does  not  distinguish  between 
sterility  from  hybridism  and  from  the  effects  of  cultuin ; and  he 
almost  destroys  the  force  of  this  statement  by  another,^^  namely, 
that  when  he  impregnated  the  flowers  of  the  common  orange  with 
the  pollen  taken  from  undoubted  varieties  of  the  orange,  monstrous 
fruits  were  produced,  which  included  “little  pulp,  and  had  no 
seeds,  or  imperfect  seeds.” 

In  this  tribe  of  plants  we  meet  with  instances  of  two  highly 
remarkable  facts  in  yegetable  physiology:  Gallesio^®  impregnated 
an  orange  with  pollen  from  a lemon,  and  the  fruit  borne  on  the 
mother  tree  had  a raised  stripe  of  peel  like  that  of  a lemon  both  in 
colour  and  taste,  but  the  pulp  was  like  that  of  an  orange  and 
included  only  imperfect  seeds.  The  possibility  of  pollen  from  one 
variety  or  species  directly  affecting  the  fruit  produced  by  another 
variety  of  species,  is  a subject  which  I shall  fully  discuss  in  the 
following  chapter. 


‘ Teoria  della  Riproduzione,’  p.  53. 

Gallesio,  ‘Teoria  della  Riproduziono,’  p.  69.  Ibid.  p.  67. 


Chap.  X. 


PEACH  AND  NECTARINE. 


357 


The  second  remarkable  fact  is,  that  two  supposed  hybrids  '^ 
(for  their  hybrid  nature  was  not  ascertained),  between  an  orange 
and  either  a lemon  or  citron,  produced  on  the  same  tree  leaves, 
f.owers,  and  fruit  of  both  pure  parent- forms,  as  well  as  of  a mixed 
or  crossed  nature.  A bud  taken  from  any  one  of  the  branches  and 
grafted  on  another  tree  produces  either  one  of  the  pure  kinds  or  a 
capricious  tree  reproducing  the  three  kinds.  Whether  the  sweet 
lemon,  which  includes  within  the  same  fruit  segments  of  differently 
flavoured  pulp,^°  is  an  analogous  case,  I know  not.  But  to  this 
subject  1 shall  have  to  recur. 

I will  conclude  by  giving  from  A.  Eisso  a short  account  of  a 
very  singular  variety  of  the  common  orange.  It  is  the  “ citi  us 
aurantium  fructu  variahili’'  which  on  the  young  shoots  produces 
rounded-oval  leaves  spotted  with  yellow,  borne  on  petioles  with 
heart-shaped  wings ; when  these  leaves  fall  off,  they  are  succeeded 
by  longer  and  narrov/er  leaves,  with  undulated  margins,  of  a pale- 
green  colour  embroidered  with  yellow,  borne  on  footstalks  without 
wings.  The  fruit  whilst  young  is  pear-shaped,  yellow,  longitu- 
dinally striated,  and  sweet;  but  as  it  ripens,  it  becomes  spherical, 
of  a reddish-yellow,  and  bitter. 

Peach  and  Aecfarine  {Amygdalus  persica).  The  best  authorities 
are  nearly  unanimous  that  the  peach  has  never  been  found  wild. 
It  was  introduced  from  Persia  into  Europe  a little  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  at  this  period  few  varieties  existed.  Alph.  Be 
Candolle,-^  from  the  fact  of  the  peach  not  having  spread  from  Persia 
at  an  earlier  period,  and  from  its  not  having  pure  Sanscrit  or 
Hebrew  names,  believes  that  it  is  not  an  aboriginal  of  W^estern 
Asia,  but  came  from  the  terra  incognita  of  China.  The  supposition, 
however,  that  the  peach  is  a modified  almond  which  acquired  its 
present  character  at  a comparatively  late  period,  would,  I presume, 
account  for  these  facts  ; on  the  same  principle  that  the  nectarine,  the 
offspring  of  the  peach,  has  few  native  names,  and  became  known  in 
Europe  at  a still  later  period. 

Andrew  Knight/®  from  finding  that  a seedling-tree,  raised  from  a 
sweet  almond  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  a peach,  yielded  fruit  quite 
like  that  of  a peach,  suspected  that  the  peach-tree  is  a modified 
almond  ; and  in  this  he  has  been  followed  by  various  authors."^  A 
first-rate  peach,  almost  globular  in  shape,  formed  of  soft  and  sweet 


Gallesio,  ‘Teoria  della  Ripto- 
luzione,’  pp.  75,  76. 

‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1841,  p. 

618. 

‘Annales  du  Museum,’  tom.  xx. 
p 188. 

‘Geograph.  Bot.,’  p.  882. 

‘ Transactions  of  Hort.  Soc.,’ vA. 
iii.  p.  1,  and  vol.  iv.  p.  896,  and  note 
to  p.  370.  A coloured  drawing  is 
given  of  this  hybrid. 


‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1856,  p. 
532.  A writer,  it  may  be  presumed 
Dr.  Liudley,  remarks  on  the  perfect 
series  which  may  be  formed  between 
the  almond  and  the  peach.  Another 
high  authority,  Mr.  Rivers,  who  has 
had  such  wide  experience,  strongly 
suspects  (‘  Gardener’s  Chronicle,'  1863, 
p.  27)  that  peaches,  if  left  to  a state 
of  nature,  would  in  the  cours  e of  time 
retrograde  into  thick-fleshed  almonds. 


o58 


FRUITS  : 


Ceai  . X, 


pulp,  surrounding  a hard,  much  furrowed,  and  slightly  flattened 
stone,  certainly  differs  greatly  from  an  almond,  with  its  soft, 
slightly  furrowed,  much  flattened,  and  elongated  stone,  protected 


FiK-  42. — Peach  and  Almond  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed  edgewaj's.  1.  Common  English 
peach.  2.  Double,  crimson-flov\ered,  Chinese  beach  3.  Chiiuse  Honey  Peach.  4. 
English  Almond.  5.  Baiceluna  Almond,  ti.  iVlalaga  Almond.  7.  Soft-shelled  Fieuch 
Almond.  8.  Smyrna  Almond. 

by  a tough,  greenish  layer  of  bitter  flesh.  Mr.  Bentham  has  par- 
ticularly called  attention  to  the  stone  of  the  almond  being  so  much 
more  flattened  than  that  of  the  peach.  But  in  the  seYcral  varieties 


‘ Journal  of  Hort.  Soc.,  vol.  :x.  p,  168. 


Chap.  X. 


PEACH  AND  NECTARINE. 


359 


of  the  almond,  the  stone  differs  greatly  in  the  degree  to  which 
it  is  compressed,  in  size,  shape,  strength,  and  in  the  depth  of  the 
furrows,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  drawing  (Nos.  4 
to  8)  of  such  kinds  as  I have  been  able  to  collect.  With  peach- 
stones  also  (Nos.  1 to  3)  the  degree  of  compression  and  elongation  is 
seen  to  vary;  so  that  the  stone  of  the  Chinese  Honey-peach  (fig.  3) 
is  much  more  elongated  and  compressed  than  that  of  the  (No.  8) 
Smyrna  almond.  Mr.  Rivers,  of  Sawbridgeworth,  to  whom  I am 
indebted  for  some  of  the  specimens  above  figured,  and  who  has  had 
such  great  horticultural  experience,  has  called  my^ttention  to 
several  varieties  which  connect  the  almond  and  the  peach.  In 
France  there  is  a variety  called  tlie  Peach- Almond,  which  Mr. 
Rivers  formerly  cultivated,  and  which  is  correctly  described  in  a 
French  catalogue  as  being  oval  and  swollen,  with  the  aspect  of  a 
peach,  including  a hard  stone  surrounded  by  a fleshy  covering, 
which  is  sometimes  eatable.^°  A remarkable  statement  by  M. 
Luizet  has  recently  appeared  in  the  ‘ Revue  Horticole,’ namely, 
that  a Peach-almond,  grafted  on  a peach,  bore,  during  1863  and 
1864,  almonds  alone,  but  in  1865  bore  six  peaches  and  no  almonds. 
M.  Carriere,  in  commenting  on  this  fact,  cites  the  case  of  a double- 
flowered  almond  which,  after  producing  duriug  several  years  almonds, 
suddenly  bore  for  two  years  in  succession  spherical  fleshy  peacfli- 
like  fruits,  but  in  1865  reverted  to  its  former  state  and  produced 
large  almonds. 

Again,  as  I hear  from  Mr.  Rivers,  the  double-flowering  Chinese 
peaches  resemble  almonds  in  their  manner  of  growth  and  in  their 
flowers ; the  fruit  is  much  elongated  and  flattened,  with  the  flesh 
both  bitter  and  sweet,  but  not  uneatable,  and  it  is  said  to  be  of 
better  quality  in  China.  From  this  stage  one  small  step  leads  us 
to  such  inferior  peaches  as  are  occasionally  raised  from  seed.  For 
instance,  Mr.  Rivers  sowed  a number  of  peach-stones  imported  from 
the  United  States,  where  they  are  collected  for  raising  stocks,  and 
some  of  the  trees  raised  by  him  produced  peaches  whicdi  were  very 
like  almonds  in  appearance,  being  small  and  hard,  with  the  pulp 
not  softening  till  very  late  in  the  autumn.  Van  Moiis^^  also  states 
that  he  once  raised  from  a peach-stone  a peach  having  the  aspect 
of  a wild  tree,  with  fruit  like  tliat  of  the  almond.  From  inferior 
peaches,  such  as  these  just  described,  we  may  pass  by  small  transi- 
tions, through  clingstones  of  poor  quality,  to  our  best  and  most 
melting  kinds.  From  this  gradation,  from  the  cases  of  sudden  varia- 
tion above  recorded,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  peach  has  not  been 
found  wild,  it  seems  to  me  by  far  the  most  probable  view,  that 


Whether  this  is  the  same  variety  produces  during  successive  years  very 
a.s  one  lately  mentioned  (•  Card.  ditferent  kinds  of  fruit. 

Chion.’  1865,  p.  1 154-)  by  M.  t^arriere  . Quoted  in  ‘ Gard.  Chro.i.’  1866, 

under  the  n:\me  of  persica  intermedia,  p.  800. 

I know  uot ; this  variety  is  said  to  be  Quoted  in  ‘Journal  dc  la  Soc 

ntermediate  in  nearly  all  its  charac-  Imp.  d’Horticulture,’  1855,  p.  238. 
ters  between  the  almond  and  peach  ; it 


360 


FRUITS  : 


Chap.  X 


the  peach  is  the  descendant  of  the  almond,  improved  and  modified 
in  a marvellous  manner. 

One  fact,  however,  is  opposed  to  this  conclusion.  A hybrid, 
raised  by  Knight  from  the  sweet  almond  by  the  pollen  of  the  peach, 
produced  flowers  with  little  or  no  pollen,  yet  bore  fruit,  having 
been  apparently  fertilised  by  a neighbouring  nectarine.  Another 
hybrid,  from  a sweet  almond  by  the  pollen  of  a nectarine,  produced 
during  the  first  three  years  imperfect  blossoms,  but  afterwards 
perfect  flowers  with  an  abundance  of  pollen.  If  this  slight  degree 
of  sterility  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  youth  of  the  trees  (and 
this  often  causes  lessened  fertility),  or  by  the  monstrous  state  of 
the  flowers,  or  by  the  conditions  to  which  the  trees  were  exposed, 
these  two  cases  would  afford  a good  argument  against  the  peach 
being  the  descendant  of  the  almond. 

Whether  or  not  the  peach  has  proceeded  from  the  almond,  it 
has  certainly  given  rise  to  nectarines,  or  smooth  peaches,  as  they 
are  called  by  the  French.  Most  of  the  varieties,  both  of  the  peach 
atid  nectarine,  reproduce  themselves  truly  by  seed.  Gallesio  says 
he  has  verified  this  with  respect  to  eight  races  of  the  peach. 
Mr.  Eivers^®  has  given  some  striking  instances  from  his  own 
experience,  and  it  is  notorious  that  good  peaches  are  constantly 
raised  in  North  America  from  seed.  Many  of  the  American  sub- 
varieties  come  true  or  nearly  true  to  their  kind,  such  as  the  white- 
blossom,  several  of  the  yellow-fruited  freestone  peaches,  the  blood 
clingstone,  the  heath,  and  the  lemon  clingstone.  On  the  other 
hand,  a clingstone  peach  has  been  known  to  give  rise  to  a freestone.^^ 
In  England  it  has  been  noticed  that  seedlings  inherit  from  their 
X)arents  flowers  of  the  same  size  and  colour.  Some  characters, 
however,  contrary  to  what  might  have  been  expected,  often  are 
not  inherited ; such  as  the  presence  and  form  of  the  glands 
on  the  leaves.®^  With  respect  to  nectarines,  both  cling  and  free- 
stones are  known  in  North  America  to  reproduce  themselves  by 
seed.^'"^  In  England  the  new  white  nectarine  was  a seedling  of  the 
old  white,  and  Mr.  Eivers^'^  has  recorded  several  similar  cases. 
From  this  strong  tendency  to  inheritance,  which  both  peach  and 
nectarine  trees  exhibit, — from  certain  slight  constitutional  differ- 
ences in  their  nature, — and  from  the  great  difference  in  their 
fruit  both  in  appearance  and  flavour,  it  is  not  surprising,  notwith- 
standing that  the  tiees  differ  in  no  other  respects  and  cannot  even 


‘ Teoria  della  Riprorluzione  Vege- 
tale,’  1816,  p.  86. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1862,  p. 

1195. 

Mr.  Rivers,  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’ 
1859,  p.  774. 

Downing,  ‘ The  Fruits  of  Ame- 
rica,’ 1845,  pp.  475,  ^89,  492,  494, 
196.  also  F.  Michaux,  ‘ 'I'ravels 

‘n  Kf.  America’  (Fng.  trails] at.),  p. 


228.  For  similar  cases  in  France  see 
Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espece,’  tom.  ii.  p.  97. 

23  Brickell’s  ‘ Nat.  Hist,  of  N. 
Carolina,’  p.  102,  and  Downing’s 
‘ Fruit  Trees,’  p.  605. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,'  1862,  p. 

1196. 

22  The  peach  and  nectarine  do  not 
succeed  equally  well  in  the  same  soil 
see  Lindley’s  ‘ Horticulture,’ p.  3-51. 


Chap.  X. 


PEACH  AND  NECTARINE. 


361 


be  distinguished,  as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Rivers,  whilst  young, 
that  they  have  been  ranked  by  some  authors  as  specifically  distinct. 
Gallesio  does  not  doubt  that  they  are  distinct ; even  Alph.  De  Candolle 
does  not  appear  perfectly  assured  of  their  specific  identity:  and  an 
eminent  botanist  has  quite  recently  maintained  that  the  nectarine 
“ probably  constitutes  a distinct  species.” 

Hence  it  may  be  worth  while  to  give  all  the  evidence  on  the 
origin  of  the  nectarine.  The  facts  in  themselves  are  curious,  and 
will  hereafter  have  to  be  referred  to  when  the  important  subject 
of  bud-variation  is  discussed.  It  is  asserted  that  the  Boston 
nectarine  was  produced  from  a peach-stone,  and  this  nectarine 
reproduced  itself  by  seed.^®  Mr.  Rivers  states^®  that  from  stones 
ot  three  distinct  varieties, of  the  peach  he  raised  three  varieties 
of  nectarine;  and  in  one  of  these  cases  no  nectarine  grew  near 
the  parent  peach-tree.  In  another  instance  Mr.  Rivers  raised  a 
nectarine  from  a peach,  and  in  the  succeeding  generation  another 
nectarine  from  this  nectarine.^®  Other  such  instances  have  been 
communicated  to  me,  but  they  need  not  be  given.  Of  the  converse 
case,  namely,  of  nectarine- stones  yielding  peach-trees  (both  free  and 
clingstones),  we  have  six  undoubted  instances  recorded  by  Mr. 
Rivers ; and  in  two  of  these  instances  the  parent  nectarines  had 
been  seedlings  from  other  nectarines.'’^ 

With  respect  to  the  more  curious  case  of  full-grown  peach-trees 
suddenly  producing  nectarines  by  bud-variation  (or  sports  as  they 
are  called  by  gardeners),  the  evidence  is  superabundant ; there  is 
also  good  evidence  of  the  same  tree  producing  both  peaches  and  necta- 
rines, or  half-and-half  fruit ; by  this  term  I mean  a fruit  with  the 
one-half  a perfect  peach,  and  the  other  half  a perfect  nectarine. 

Peter  Collinson  in  1741  recorded  the  first  case  of  a peach-tree 
producing  a nectarine,''^  and  in  1766  he  added  two  other  instances. 
In  the  same  work,  the  editor.  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  describes  the  more 
remarkable  case  of  a tree  in  Norfolk  which  usually  bore  both 
perfect  nectarines  and  perfect  peaches;  but  during  two  seasons 
■some  of  the  fruit  were  half  and  half  in  nature. 

Mr.  Salisbury  in  1808  records  six  other  cases  of  peach-trees 
producing  nectarines.  Three  of  the  varieties  are  named ; viz.,  the 
Alberge,  Belle  Chevreuse,  and  Royal  George.  This  latter  tree  seldom 
failed  to  produce  both  kinds  of  fruit.  He  gives  another  case  of 
a half-and-half  fruit. 

At  Radford  in  Devonshire  a clingstone  peach,  purchased  as 


Godron,  ‘De  I’Espfece,’  tom.  ii., 
1859,  p.  97. 

‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  vi.  p. 

394. 

Downinij’s  ‘ Fruit  Trees,’  p.  502. 
‘ (tardener’s  Chronicle,’  1862,  p. 

1 1 95. 

‘.Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Feb. 
5th,  1866,  p.  102. 

■“  Mr.  Rivers,  in  ‘ Gardener’s 


Chron.,’  1859,  p.  774,  1862,  p,  1 195  ; 

1865,  p.  1059  ; and  ‘ Journal  of  Hort.,’ 

1866,  p.  102. 

‘ Corre.spnndence  of  Tdnnaeus,’ 
1821,  pp.  7,  8,  70. 

‘Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  i.  p. 

103. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Ganlener’s  Mag  ,’ 
1826,  vol.  i.  p.  471. 


362 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X. 


the  Chancellor,  was  planted  in  1815,  and  in  1824,  aft-er  having 
previously  produced  peaches  alone,  bore  on  one  branch  twelve 
nectarines;  in  1825  the  same  branch  yielded  twenty-six  nectarines, 
and  in  1826  thirty-six  nectarines,  together  with  eighteen  peaches. 
One  of  the  peaches  was  almost  as  smooth  on  one  side  as  a nectarine. 
The  nectarines  were  as  dark  as,  but  smaller  than,  the  Elruge. 

At  Beccles  a Royal  George  peach produced  a fruit,  “three 
parts  of  it  being  peach  and  one  part  nectarine,  quite  distinct  in 
appearance  as  well  as  in  flavour.’^  The  lines  of  division  were 
longitudinal,  as  represented  in  the  woodcut.  A nectarine- tree 
grew  five  yards  from  this  tree. 

Professor  Chapman  states.^®  that  he  has  often  seen  in  Virginia 
very  old  peach-trees  bearing  nectarines. , 

A writer  in  the  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle  ’ says  that  a peach  tree 
planted  fifteen  years  previously  produced  this  year  a nectarine 
between  two  peaches ; a nectarine-tree  grew  close  by. 

In  1844^^  a Vanguard  peach-tree  produced,  in  the  midst  of  its 
ordinary  fruit,  a single  red  Roman  nectarine. 

Mr.  Calver  is  Stated‘S®  to  have  raised  in  the  United  States 
a seedling  peach  which  produced  a mixed  crop  of  both  peaches  ami 
nectarines. 

Near  Dorking®®  a branch  of  the  Teton  de  Venus  peach,  which 
reproduces  itself  truly  by  seed,®^  bore  its  own  fruit  “ so  remarkable 
for  its  prominent  point,  and  a nectarine  rather  smaller  but  well 
formed  and  quite  round.” 

The  previous  cases  all  refer  to  peaches  suddenly  producing 
nectarines,  but  at  Garde w®^  the  unique  case  occurred,  of  a ntictariiie- 
tree,  raised  twenty  years  before  from  seed  and  never  grafted, 
producing  a fruit  half  peach  and  half  nectarine  ; subsequently  bore 
a perfect  peach. 

To  sum  up  the  foregoing  facts;  we  have  excellent  evidence  of 
peach-stones  producing  nectarine-trees,  and  of  nectarine-stones 
producing  peach-trees, — of  the  same  tree-bearing  peaches  and 
nectarines, — of  peach-trees  suddenly  producing  by  bud- variation 
nectarines  (such  nectarines  reproducing  nectarines  by  seed),  as 
well  as  fruit  in  part  nectarine  and  in  part  peach,— and,  lastly,  of 
one.  nectarine-tree  first  bearing  half-and-half  fruit,  and  subsequently 
true  peaches.  As  the  peach  came  into  existence  before  the  nectarine, 
it  might  have  been  expected  from  the  law  of  reversion  that, 
nectarines  would  have  given  birth  by  bud-variation  or  by  seed 
to  peaches,  oftener  than  peaches  to  nectarines ; but  this  is  by  no 
means  the  case. 


*•'*  London’s,  ‘ Gardener’s  Mag.,’ 
1828,  p.  53. 

Ibid.,  1830,  p.  597. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1841.  p. 

617. 

‘Gai'dener’s  Chronicle,’  1844,  p. 

589. 


‘ Phytologist,’  vol.  iv.  p.  299. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1856,  p. 

531. 

Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espbce,’  tom.  ii.  p. 
97. 

‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1856,  p 
53 1 


Chap.  X. 


PEACH  AND  NECTARINE. 


363 


Two  explanations  have  been  suggested  to  account  for  these 
eonversions.  First,  that  the  parent  trees  have  been  in  every  case 
hybrids  between  the  peach  and  nectarine,  and  have  reverted 
by  bud- variation  or  by  seed  to  one  of  their  pure  parent  forms. 
This  view  in  itself  is  not  very  improbable ; for  the  Mountaineer 
peach,  which  was  raised  by  Knight  from  the  red  nutmeg-peacli 
l)y  pollen  of  the  violette  hative  nectarine, produces  peaches,  but 
these  are  said  sometimes  to  partake  of  the  smoothness  and  flavour 
of  the  nectarine.  But  let  it  be  observed  that  in  the  previous  list 
no  less  than  six  well-known  varieties  and  several  unnamed  varfeties 
of  the  peach  have  once  suddenly  produced  perfect  nectarines  by 
bud  variation  : and  it  would  be  an  extremely  rash  supposition 
that  all  these  varieties  of  the  peach,  which  have  been  cultivated 
for  years  in  many  districts,  and  which  show  not  a vestige  of 
a mixed  parentage,  are,  nevertheless,  hybrids  A t-econd  explana- 
tion is,  that  the  fruit  of  the  peach  has  been  directly  affected  by  the 
pollen  of  the  nectarine : although  this  certainly  is  possible,  it 
cannot  here  apply;  for  we  have  not  a shadow  of  evidence  that 
a branch  which  has  borne  fruit  directly  affected  by  foreign  pollen 
is  so  profoundly  modified  as  afterwards  to  produce  buds  which 
continue  to  yield  fruit  of  the  new  and  modified  form.  Now  it 
is  known  that  when  a bud  on  a peach-tree  has  once  borne  a nectarine 
the  same  branch  has  in  several  instances  gone  on  during  successive 
years  producing  nectarines.  The  Carclew  nectarine,  on  the  other 
hand,  tirst  produced  half-and-half  fruit,  and  subsequently  pure 
peaches.  Hence  we  may  confidently  accept  the  common  view  that 
the  nectarine  is  a variety  of  the  peach,  which  may  be  produced 
either  by  bud-variation  or  from  seed.  In  the  following  chapter 
many  analogous  cases  of  bud- variation  will  be  given. 

The  varieties  of  the  peach  and  the  nectarine  run  in  parallel  lines. 
In  both  classes  the  kinds  differ  from  each  other  in  the  flesh  of  the 
fruit  being  white,  red,  or  yellow;  in  being  clingstones  or  freestones; 
in  the  flowers  being  large  or  small,  with  certain  other  characteristic 
differences;  and  in  the  leaves  being  serrated  without  glands, 
or  crenated  and  furnished  with  globose  or  reniform  giands.^-’^  \'Ve 
can  hardly  account  for  this  parallelism  by  supposing  that  each 
variety  of  the  nectarine  is  descended  from  a corresponding  variety 
of  the  peach ; for  though  our  nectarines  are  certainly  the  descend- 
ants of  several  kinds  of  peaches,  yet  a large  number  are  the 
descendants  of  other  nectarines,  and  they  vary  so  much  when 
thus  reproduced  that  w^e  can  scarcely  admit  the  above  explanation. 

The  varieties  of  the  peach  have  largely  increased  in  number 
since  the  Christian  era,  when  from  t^vo  to  five  varieties  were 
known ; and  the  nectarine  was  unknown.  At  the  present  time, 

Alph.  De  Cand.ille,  ‘ Geograph.  Hurt.  Soc.,’  1842,  p.  105. 

Bot.,  p.  886.  Dr.  A.  Targioni-Tozzetti,  ‘ Jour- 

Thompson,  in  Loudon’s  ‘Ency-  nal  Hort.  See.,’ vol.  ix.  p.  167.  Alph 
olop.  of  Gardening,’ p.  911.  de  Candolle,  ‘Geograph.  Bot.,’  p 

‘Catalogue  of  Fruit  in  Garden  of  885. 


564 


FRUITS  : 


Chat.  X 


besides  many  varieties  said  to  exist  in  China,  Downing  describes, 
in  tlie  United  States,  seventy-nine  native  , and  imported  varieties 
of  the  peach;  and  a few  years  ago  Lindley®^  enumerated  one 
hundreci  and  sixty-four  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine  grown 
in  England.  I have  already  indicated  the  chief  points  of  difference 
between  the  several  varieties.  Nectarines,  even  when  produced 
from  distinct  kinds  of  peaches,  always  possess  their  own  peculiar 
flavour,  and  are  smooth  and  small.  Clingstone  and  freestone 
peaches,  which  differ  in  the  ripe  flesh  either  firmly  adhering  to 
the  stone,  or  easily  separating  from  it,  also  differ  in  the  character 
of  the  stone  itself;  that  of  the  freestones  or  melters  being  more 
deeply  fissured,  with  the  sides  of  the  fissures  smoother  than 
in  clingstones.  In  the  various  kinds  the  flowers  differ  not  only 
in  size,  but  in  the  larger  flowers  the  petals  are  differently  shape<i, 
more  imbricated,  generally  red  in  the  centre  and  pale  towards 
the  margin : whereas  in  the  smaller  flowers  the  margin  of  the 
petal  are  usually  more  darkly  coloured.  One  variety  has  nearly 
white  flowers.  The  leaves  are  more  or  less  serrated,  and  are  either 
destitute  of  glands,  or  ha\e  globose  or  reniform  glands;®**  and  some 
few  peaches,  such  as  the  Brugnen,  bear  on  the  same  tree  both 
globular  and  kidney-shaped  glands.®®  According  to  Eobertson 
the  trees  with  glandular  leaves  are  liable  to  blister,  but  not  in  any 
great  degree  to  mildew ; whilst  the  uon-ginndular  trees  are  more 
subject  TO  curl,  to  mildew,  and  to  the  attacks  of  aphides.  The 
varieties  differ  in  the  period  of  their  maturity,  in  the  fruit  keeping 
well,  and  in  hardiness, — the  latter  circumstance  being  especially 
attended  to  in  the  United  States.  Certairi  varieties,  such  as  the 
Bellegarde,  stand  forcing  in  hot-houses  better  than  other  varieties. 
The  flat-peach  of  China  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  varieties , 
it  is  so  much  depressed  tow'ards  the  summit,  that  the  stone  is  here 
covered  only  by  roughened  skin  and  not  by  a fleshy  la^er.®' 
Another  Chinese  variety,  called  the  Honey-peach,  is  remarkable 
from  the  fruit  terminating  in  a long  sharp  point;  its  leaves  are 
glandless  and  widely  deiitate.®^  The  Emperor  of  Eussia  peach 
is  a third  singular  variety,  having  dee])ly  double-serrated  leaves ; 
the  fruit  is  deeply  cleft  with  one-half  projecting  considerably 
beyond  the  other:  it  originated  in  America,  and  its  seedlings 
inherit  similiar  leaves.®® 

The  peach  has  also  produced  in  China  a small  class  of  trees 
\alued  for  ornament,  namely  the  double-flowered;  of  these,  five 


‘Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  v.  p. 
554.  See  also  Carriere,  ‘ Description  et 
Class,  des  Varietes  de  Pechers.’ 

‘ Loudon’s  ‘ Lucyclop.  of  Garden- 
ing,’ i>.  9U7. 

M.  Carriere,  in‘Gard.  Chron.,’ 
1865,  p.  1154. 

‘ Transact.  Ilort.  Soc.,’  vol.  iii. 
p.  332  Sec  also  ‘ G.irJeuer's  Chronicle,’ 


1865,  p,  271,  to  same  effect.  Also 
‘Journal  of  Horticulture,’ Sept.  26th, 
1865,  p.  254. 

^ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.’  vol,  iv.  p. 

512. 

‘Journ.il  of  Horticulture,’  Sept. 
8th,  1853,  p.  188. 

‘Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  vi. 
p.  412 


Chav.  X. 


APRICOTS, 


805 


varieties  are  now  known  in  England,  varying  from  pure  white, 
through  rose,  to  intense  crimson.®'^  One  of  these  varieties,  called 
the  camellia-flowered,  bears  flowers  above  inches  in  diameter, 
whilst  those  of  the  fruit-bearing  kinds  do  not  at  most  exceed  1 j 
inch  in  diameter.  The  flowers  of  the  double-flowered  peaches  have 
the  singular  property®^  of  frequently  producing  double  or  treble 
fruit.  Finally,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  peach  is  an 
almond  profoundly  modified;  but  whatever  its  origin  may  have 
been,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  yielded  during  the  last 
eighteen  centuries  many  varieties,  some  of  them  strongly  charac- 
terised, belonging  both  to  the  nectarine  and  peach  form. 

Apricot  (^Frunus  armeniucd). — It  is  commonly  admitted  that  this 
tree  is  descended  from  a -single  species,  now  found  wild  in  the 
Caucasian  region.®®  On  this  view  the  varieties  deserve  notice, 
because  they  illustrate  differences  supposed  by  some  botanists  to 
be  of  specific  value  in  the  almond  and  plum.  The  best  monograph 
on  the  apricot  is  by  Mr.  Thompson,®'^  who  describes  seventeen 
varieties.  We  have  seen  that  peaches  and  nectarines  vary  in  a 
strictly  parallel  manner ; and  in  the  apricot,  wdiich  forms  a closely 
allied  genus,  we  again  meet  with  variations  analogous  to  those  of 
the  peach,  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  plum.  The  varieties  differ 
considerably  in  the  shape  of  their  leaves,  which  are  either  serrated 
or  crenated,  sometimes  with  ear  like  appendages  at  their  bases, 
and  sometimes  with  glands  on  the  petioles.  The  flowers  are 
generally  alike,  but  are  small  in  the  Masculine.  The  fruit  varies 
much  in  size,  shape,  and  in  having  the  suture  little  pronounced 
or  absent ; in  the  skin  being  smooth,  or  downy,  as  in  the  orange- 
apricot;  and  in  the  flesh  clinging  to  the  stone,  as  in  the  last- 
mentioned  kind,  or  in  readily  separating  from  it,  as  in  the 
Turkey -apricot.  In  all  these  differences  we  see  the  closest  analogy 
with  the  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine.  In  the  stone  v/e 
have  more  important  differences,  and  these  in  the  case  of  the  plum 
have  been  esteemed  of  specific  value  : in  some  apricots  the  stone  is 
almost  spherical,  in  others  much  flattened,  being  either  sharp  in 
front  or  blunt  at  both  ends,  sometimes  channelled  along  the  back, 
or  wuth  a sharp  ridge  along  both  margins.  In  the  Moorpark,  and 
generally  in  the  Eemskirke,  the  stone  presents  a singular  character 
in  being  perforated,  with  a bundle  of  fibres  passing  through  the 
perforation  from  end  to  end.  The  most  constant  and  important 
character,  according  to  Thompson,  is  whether  the  kernel  is  bitter 
or  sweet : yet  in  this  respect  we  have  a graduated  difference,  for 
the  kernel  is  very  bitter  in  Shipley’s  apricot;  in  the  Eemskirke 
less  bitter  than  in  some  other  kinds ; slightly  bitter  in  the  Eoyal ; 
and  “ sweet  like  a hazel-nut  ” in  the  Breda,  Angoumois,  and  others. 


‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1857,  p.  Bot.,’  p.  879. 

216.  ‘Transact.  Hort.  Soc.’  (2nd 

‘Journal  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  voL  ii.  series),  vol.  i.  1835,  p.  56,  See  also 
p.  283.  ‘ Cat.  of  Fruit  in  Garden  of  Hort.  Soc., 

Alph.  de  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph,  3rd  edit.  1842. 


3G6 


FRUITS  : 


Chai*.  X. 


In  file  case  of  the  almond,  bitterness  has  been  thought  by  some 
high  authorities  to  indicate  specific  difference. 

In  N.  America  the  Eoman  apricot  endures  “ cold  and  unfavour- 
able situations,  'S’vhere  no  other  sort,  except  the  Masculine,  will 
succeed;  and  its  blossoms  bear  quite  a severe  frost  without 
injury.”®®  According  to  Mr.  Rivers,®^  seedling  apricots  deviate  but 
little  from  the  character  of  their  race : in  France  the  Alberge  is 
constantly  reproduced  from  seed  with  but  little  variation.  In 
Ladakh,  according  to  Moorcroft,"^®  ten  varieties  of  the  apricot,  very 
different  from  each  other,  are  cultivated,  and  all  are  raised  from 
seed,  excepting  one,  which  is  budded. 

Plums  {t^runvs  insititui). — Formerly  the  sloe,  P.  s'pinosa,  was 
thought  to  be  the  parent  of  all  our  plums  ; but  now  this  honour  is 


1 2 


6 6 7 

Fig.  43. — Plum  Stones,  of  natural  siz'^, -viewed  laterally.  1.  Bullace  Plum.  2.  Shropshire 
Damson.  3.  Blue  Gaga.  4.  Orleans.  5.  Elvas.  6.  Danyei’s  Victoria.  7.  Diamond, 

very  commonly  accorded  to  P.  irisititia  or  the  bullace,  which  is 
found  wild  in  the  Caucasus  and  N.-Western  India,  and  is  natural- 
ised in  England.'^^  It  is  not  at  all  improbable,  in  accordance  with 
some  observations  made  by  Mr.  Eivers,’^^  that  both  these  forms, 
which  some  botanists  rank  as  a single  species,  may  be  the  parents 
of  our  domesticated  plums.  Another  supposed  parent-form,  the 
P.  domestica,  is  said  to  be  found  wild  in  the  region  of  the  Caucasus. 


Downing,  ‘ The  Fruits  of  Ame- 
rica,’ 1845,  p.  157  : with  respect  to 
the  Alberge  apricot  in  France,  see  p, 
153, 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle.’  1863,  p. 

364. 

‘Travels  in  the  Himalayan  Pro- 


vinces,’ vol.  i.  1841,  p.  295,. 

See  an  excellent  discussion  on 
this  subject  in  Hewett  C.  Watson’s 
‘ Cybele  Britannica,’  vol.  iv.  p.  80. 

’’2  ‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1865,  p 
27. 


Chap.  X. 


PLUMS. 


367 


Godron  remarks'^®  tliat  the  cultivated  varieties  may  be  divided  into 
two  main  groups,  which  he  supposes  to  be  descended  from  two 
aboriginal  stocks;  namely,  those  with  oblong  fruit  and  stones 
pointed  at  both  ends,  having  narrow  separate  petals  and  upright 
branches ; and  those  with  rounded  fruit,  with  stones  blunt  at  both 
ends,  with  rounded  petals  and  spreading  branches.  From  what 
we  know  of  the  variability  of  the  flowers  in  the  peach  and  of  the 
diversified  manner  of  growth  in  our  various  fruit-trees,  it  is  difficult 
to  lay  much  weight  on  these  latter  characters.  With  respect  to 
the  shape  of  the  fruit,  we  have  conclusive  evidence  that  it  is 
extremely  variable  : Downing  gives  outlines  of  the  plums  of.  dwo 
seedlings,  namely,  the  red  and  imperial  gages,  raised  from  the 
greengage;  and  the  fruit  of  both  is  more  elongated  than  that  of  the 
greengage.  The  latter  has  a very  blunt  broad  stone,  whereas  the 
stone  of  the  imperial  gage  is  “oval  and  pointed  at  both  ends.*’ 
These  trees  also  differ  in  their  manner  of  growth : “ the  greengage 
is  a very  short-jointed,  slow-growing  tree,  of  spreading  and  rather 
dwarfish  habit ; ” whilst  its  offspring,  the  imperial  gage,  “ grows 
freely  and  rises  rapidly,  and  has  long  dark  shoots.”  The  famous 
Washington  plum  bears  a globular  fruit,  but  its  offspring,  the 
emerald  drop,  is  nearly  as  much  elongated  as  the  most  elongated 
plum  figured  by  Downing,  namely.  Manning’s  prune.  I have  made 
a small  collection  of  the  stones  of  twenty-five  kinds,  and  they 
graduate  in  shape  from  the  bluntest  into  the  sharpest  kinds.  As 
characters  derived  from  seeds  are  generally  of  high  systematic 
importance,  I have  thought  it  worth  while  to  give  drawings  of  the 
most  distinct  kinds  in  my  small  collection ; and  they  may  be  seen 
to  differ  in  a surprising  manner  in  size,  outline,  thickness,  promi- 
nence of  the  ridges,  and  state  of  surface.  It  deserves  notice  that 
the  shape  of  the  stone  is  not  always  strictly  correlated  with  that  of 
tire  fruit : thus  the  Washington  plum  is  spherical  and  depressed  at 
the  pole,  with  a somewhat  elongated  stone,  whilst  the  fruit  of 
the  Goliath  is  more  elongated,  but  the  stone  less  so,  than  in  the 
Washington.  Again,  Denyer’s  Victoria  and  Goliath  bear  fruit 
closely  resembling  each  other,  but  their  stones  are  widely  different. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Harvest  and  Black  Margate  plums  are  very 
dissimilar,  yet  include  closely  similar  stones. 

The  varieties  of  the  plum  are  numerous,  and  differ  greatly  in 
size,  shape,  quality,  and  colour, — being  bright  yellow,  green,  almost 
white,  blue,  purple,  or  red.  There  are  some  curious  varieties,  such 
as  the  double  or  Siamese,  and  the  Stoneless  plum ; in  the  latter  the 


‘ De  TEspfece,’ tom.  ii.  p.  94.  On  278,  284,  310,  314.  Mr.  Rivers 

the  parentage  of  our  plums,  see  also  raised  (‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1863,  p.  27) 

Alph.  De  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph.  Bot.,’  from  the  Prune-peche,  which  bears 

p.  878.  Also  Targioni-Toiszetti, ‘Jour-  large,  round,  red  plums  on  stout, 

nal  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  ix.  p.  164.  Also  robust  shoots,  a seedling  which  bears 

Babington,  ‘ Manual  of  Brit.  Botany,’  oval,  smaller  fruit  on  shoots  that  are 

18M,  p.  87.  so  slender  as  to  be  almost  pendulous. 

‘ Fruits  of  America,’  pp.  276, 


FRUITS : 


Chap.  X. 


36S 


kernel  lies  in  a roomy  cavity  surrounded  only  by  the  pulp.  The 
climate  of  North  America  appears  to  be  singularly  favourable  for 
the  production  of  new  and  good  varieties;  Downing  describes  no 
less  than  forty,  of  which  seven  of  first-rate  quality  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  England.'^^  Yarieties  occasionally  arise 
having  an  innate  adaptation  for  certain  soils,  almost  as  strongly 
pronounced  as  with  natural  species  growing  on  the  most  distinct 
geological  formations ; thus  in  America  the  imperial  gage,  differently 
from  almost  all  other  kinds,  “ is  peculiarly  fitted  for  dry  light  soils 
where  many  sorts  drop  their  fruit,”  whereas  on  rich  heavy  soils  the 
fruit  is  often  insipid.'^*^  My  father  could  never  succeed  in  making 
the  Wine-Sour  yield  even  a moderate  crop  in  a sandy  orchard  near 
Shrewsbury,  whilst  in  some  parts  of  the  same  county  and  in  its 
native  Yorkshire  it  bears  abundantly : one  of  my  relations  also 
repeatedly  tried  in  vain  to  grow  this  variety  in  a sandy  district  in 
Staffordshire. 

Mr.  Rivers  has  given  a number  of  interesting  facts,  showing 
how  truly  many  varieties  can  be  propagated  by  seed.  He  sowed 
the  stones  of  twenty  bushels  of  the  greengage  for  the  sake  of  raising 
stocks,  and  closely  observed  the  seedlings;  all  had  the  smooth  shoots, 
the  prominent  buds,  and  the  glossy  leaves  of  the  greengage,  but  the 
greater  number  had  smaller  leaves  and  thorns.”  There  are  two 
kinds  of  damson,  one  the  Shropshire  with  downy  shoots,  and  the 
other  the  Kentish  with  smooth  shoots,  and  these  differ  but  slightly 
in  any  other  respect : Mr.  Rivers  sowed  some  bushels  of  the  Kentish 
damson,  and  all  the  seedlings  had  smooth  shoots,  but  in  some 
the  fruit  was  oval,  in  others  round  or  roundish,  and  in  a few  the 
fruit  was  small,  and,  except  in  being  sweet,  closely  resembled  that 
of  the  wild  sloe.  Mr.  Rivers  gives  several  other  striking  instances 
of  inheritance : thus,  he  raised  eighty  thousand  seedlings  from  the 
common  German  Quetsche  plum,  and  “not  one  could  be  found 
varying  in  the  least,  in  foliage  or  habit.”  Similar  facts  were  observed 
with  the  Petite  Mirabelle  plum,  yet  this  latter  kind  (as  well  as  the 
Quetsche)  is  known  to  have  yielded  some  well-established  varieties; 
but,  as  Mr.  Rivers  remarks,  they  all  belong  to  the  same  group  with 
the  Mirabelle. 

Cherries  (Frunus  cerasus,  avium,  &c.). — Botanists  believe  that  our 
cultivated  cherries  are  descended  from  one,  two,  four,  or  even  more 
wild  stocks.'^®  That  there  must  be  at  least  two  parent  species  we 
may  infer  from  the  sterility  of  twenty  hybrids  raised  by  Mr.  Knight 
from  the  morello  fertilized  by  pollen  of  the  Elton  cherry ; for  these 
hybrids  produced  in  all  only  five  cherries,  and  one  alone  of  these 


” ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,'  1855,  p. 
726. 

Downing’s  ‘Fruit  Trees,’ p.  278. 
‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1863,  p. 
27.  Sageret,  in  his  ‘ Fomologie  Phys.,’ 
p.  348,  enumerates  five  kinds  which 
Oiin  be  propagated  in  France  by  sec.l ; 


see  also  Dowming’s  ‘ Fruit  Trees  ol 
America,’  p.  305,  312,  &c. 

Compare  Alph.  De  Canlolle, 
‘ Geograph,  Bot.,’  p.  877  ; Bentham 
and  Targioni-Tozzetti,  in  ‘ Hort.  .Joi;r- 
ai,’  vol.  ix.  p.  163  ; Gourou,  ‘ De 
I’Espbce,’  tom.  ii.  {».  02, 


Chap.  X. 


CHERRIES— APPLES. 


369 


contained  a seed.'^^  Mr.  Thompson  has  classified  the  varielies  in 
an  apparently  natural  method  in  two  main  groups  by  characters 
taken  from  the  flowers,  fruit,  and  leaves ; but  some  varieties  w^hich 
stand  widely  separate  in  this  classification  are  quite  fertile  when 
crossed-  thus  Knight’s  Early  Black  cherries  is  the  product  of  a cross 
between  two  such  kinds. 

Mr.  Knight  states  that  seedling  cherries  are  more  variable  than 
those  of  any  other  fruit-tree.®^  In  the  Catalogue  of  the  Horticultural 
Society  for  1842,  eighty  varieties  are  enumerated.  Some  varieties 
present  singular  characters : thus,  the  flower  of  the  Cluster  cherry 
includes  as  many  as  twelve  pistils,  of  which  the  majority  abort ; -and 
they  are  said  generally  to  j)roduce  from  two  to  five  or  six  cherries 
aggregated  together  and  borne  on  a single  peduncle.  In  the  Ratafia 
cherry  several  flower-peduncles  arise  from  a common  peduncle, 
upwards  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  fruit  of  Gascoigne’s  Heart  has 
its  apex  produced  into  a globule  or  drop ; that  of  the  white  Hunga- 
rian Gean  has  almost  transparent  flesh.  The  Flemish  cherry  is  “ a 
very  odd-looking  fruit,”  much  flattened  at  the  summit  and  base, 
with  the  latter  deeply  furrowed,  and  borne  on  a stout,  very  short 
footstalk.  In  the  Kentish  cherry  the  stone  adheres  so  firmly  to  the 
footstalk,  that  it  could  be  drawn  out  of  the  fl.esh ; and  this  renders 
the  fruit  well  fitted  for  drying.  The  Tobacco-leaved  cherry,  accord- 
ing to  Sageret  and  Thomxjson,  produces  gigantic  leaves,  more  than 
a foot  and  sometimes  even  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  half  a foot 
in  breadth.  The  weeping  cherry,  on  the  other  hand,  is  valuable 
only  as  an  ornament,  and,  according  to  Downing,  is  ''  a charming 
little  tree,  with  slender,  weeping  branches,  clothed  with  small,  almost 
myrtle-like  foliage.”  There  is  also  a peach-leaved  variety. 

Sageret  describes  a remarkable  variety,  U griottier  de  la  Toussaint, 
which  bears  at  the  same  time,  even  as  late  as  September,  flowers  and 
fruit  of  all  degrees  of  maturity.  The  fruit,  which  is  of  inferior 
quality,  is  borne  on  long,  very  thin  footstalks.  But  the  extraordinary 
statement  is  made  that  all  the  leaf-bearing  shoots  spring  from  old 
flower- buds.  Lastly,  there  is  an  important  physiological  distinction 
between  those  kinds  of  cherries  which  bear  fruit  on  young  or  on  old 
wood ; but  Sageret  positively  asserts  that  a Bigarreau  in  his  garden 
bore  fruit  on  wood  of  both  ages.®^ 

Apple  {Pyrus  malus). — The  one  source  of  doubt  felt  by  botanists 
with  respect  to  the  parentage  of  the  apple  is  whether,  besides  P. 
raalus,  two  or  three  other  closely  allied  wild  forms,  namely,  P.  acerha 
and  prcjecox  or  paradisiaca,  do  not  deserve  to  be  ranked  as  distinct 


‘Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  v., 
1824,  p.  295. 

IbiJ.,  second  series,  vol.  i.,  1835, 
p.  248. 

Ibid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  138. 

These  several  statements  are 
taken  from  the  four  fo. lowing  works, 
which  may,  I believe,  be  trusted : 

25 


Thompson,  in  ‘ Hort.  Transact.,’  see 
.above;  Sageret ’s  ‘ Pomologie  Phys.,’ 
1830,  pp.  358,  364,  367,  379  ; ‘ Cata- 
logue of  the  Fruit  in  the  Garden 
'of  Hort.  Soc.,’  1842,  pp.  57,  60  ; 
Downing,  ‘The  Fruits  of  America. 
1.845,  pp.  189,  195  200. 


370 


FRUITS : 


Chap.  X. 


spec.es.  The  P.  proecox  is  supposed  by  some  authors*^  to  l)e  tl'.e 
j)arent  of  the  dwarf  i)aradise  stock,  which,  owing  to  the  fibrous  roots 
not  penetrating  deeply  into  the  ground,  is  so  largely  used  for 
grafting;  but  the  paradise  stocks,  it  is  asserted,^’^  cannot  be  propa- 
gated true  by  seed.  The  common  wild  crab  varies  considerablj'  in 
England ; but  many  of  the  varieties  are  believed  to  be  escaped 
seedlings.®^  Every  one  knows  the  great  difference  in  the  manner 
of  growth,  in  the  foliage,  flowers,  and  especially  in  the  fruit,  between 
the  almost  innumerable  varieties  of  the  apple.  The  pips  or  seeds 
(as  I know  by  comparison)  likewise  diifer  considerably  in  sbaj^e, 
size,  and  colour.  The  fruit  is  adapted  for  eating  or  for  cooking  in 
various  w’ays,  and  keeps  for  only  a few  weeks  or  for  nearly  two 
j'ears.  Some  few  kinds  have  the  fruit  covered  .with  a powdery 
secretion,  called  bloom,  like  that  on  plums;  and  “it  is  extremely 
remarkable  that  this  occurs  almost  exclusively  among  varieties 
cultivated  in  Russia.” Another  Russian  apple,  the  white  Astracan, 
possesses  the  singular  property  of  becoming  transparent,  when  ripe, 
like  some  sorts  of  crabs.  The  api  etoile  has  five  pi’ominent  ridges, 
hence  its  name ; the  upi  noir  is  nearly  black : the  twin  cluster  pippin 
• often  bears  fruit  joined  in  pairs. . The  trees  of  the  several  sorts 
differ  greatly  in  their  periods  of  leafing  and  flowering;  in  my 
orchard  the  Court  Pendu  Plat  produces  leaves  so  late,  that  during 
several  springs  I thought  that  it  was  dead.  The  Tiffin  apple 
scarcely  bears  a leaf  when  in  full  bloom ; the  Cornish  crab,  on  the 
other  hand,  bears  so  many  leaves  at  this  period  that  the  flowers 
can  hardly  be  seen.®®  In  some  kinds  the  fruit  ripens  in  mid- 
summer; in  others,  late  in  the  autumn.  These  several  differences 
in  leafing,  flowering,  and  fruiting,  are  not  at  all  necessarily  cor- 
related ; for,  as  Andrew  Knight  has  remarked,®^  no  one  can  judge 
from  the  early  flowering  of  a new  seedling,  or  from  the  early 
shedding  or  change  of  colour  of  the  leaves,  whether  it  will  mature 
its  fruit  early  in  the  season. 

The  varieties  differ  grea.tly  in  constitution.  It  is  notorious  that 
our  summers  are  not  hot  enough  for  the  Newtown  Pippin, wRich 


Mr.  Lowe  states  in  his  ‘ Flora  of 
Madeira’  (quoted  in  ‘ Gard.  Chron.,’ 
1862,  p.  215)  that  the  P.malus,  with 
its  nearly  sessile  fruit,  ranges  farther 
south  than  the  long-stalked  P.  acerha^ 
which  is  entirely  absent  in  Madeira, 
the  Canaries,  and  apparently  in  Por- 
tugal. This  fact  supports  the  belief 
that  these  two  forms  deserve  to  be 
called  species.  But  the  characters 
separating  them  are  of  slight  import- 
ance, and  of  a kind  known  to  vary  in 
other  cultivated  fruit-trees. 

‘ Journ.  of  llort.  Tour,  by 
Deputation  of  the  Caledonian  Hort. 


Soc.,’  1823,  p.  459. 

H.  C.  Watson,  ‘Cybele  Britan- 
nica,’  vol.  i.  p.  334. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Mag.,’  vol. 
vi.,  1830,  p.  83. 

See  ‘Catalogue  of  Fruit  in  Gar- 
den of  Ilort.  Soc.,’  1842,  and 
Downing’s  ‘ American  Fruit  Trees.’ 

Loudon’s  • Gardener's  Magazine,’ 
vol.  iv.,  1828,  p.  1122. 

‘ The  Culture  of  the  Apple,’  p. 
43.  Van  Mons  makes  the  same  remark 
on  the  pear,  ‘ Arbres  Fruitiers,’  tom. 
ii.,  1836.,  p.  414. 

Liadley’s  ‘ Horticulture,’ p.  116 


CiiAr.  X. 


APPLES. 


371 

is  the  glory  of  the  orchards  near  New  York:  and  so  it  is  with 
several  varieties  which  we  have  imported  from  the  Continent.  On 
the  other  hand,  our  Court  of  Wick  succeeds  well  under  the  severe 
climate  of  Canada.  The  Calville  roucje  <ie  Micoud  occasionally  bears 
two  crops  during  the  same  year.  The  Burr  Knot  is  covered  witli 
small  excrescences,  which  emit  roois  so  readily  that  a branch  with, 
blossom-buds  may  be  stuck  in  tlie  ground,  and  will  root  and  bear  a 
few  fruit  even  during  the  first  year.^^  Mr.  Pavers  has  recently 
described®^  some  seedlings  valuable  from  their  roots  running  near 
the  surface.  One  of  these  seedlings  was  remarkable  from  its 
extremely  dwarfed  size,  “forming  itself  into  a bush  only  a few 
inches  in  height.”  Many  varieties  are  particularly  liable  to  canker 
in  certain  soils.  But  perhaps  the  strangest  constitutional  23eculiarity 
is  that  the  Winter  Majetin  is  not  attacked  by  the  mealy  bug  or 
coccus;  Bindley®^  states  that  in  an  orchard  in  Norfolk  infested 
with  these  insects  the  Majetin  was  quite  free,  though  the  stock  on 
which  it  was  grafted  was  affected : Knight  makes  a similar  state- 
ment with  respect  to  a cider  a^^ple,  and  adds  that  he  only  once 
saw  these  insects  just  above  the  stock,  but  that  three  days  after- 
wards they  entirely  disappeared ; this  apple,  however,  was  raised 
from  a cross  between  the  Golden  Harvey  and  the  Siberian  Crab; 
and  the  latter,  I believe,  is  considered  by  some  authors  as  specitic- 
ally  distinct. 

The  famous  St.  Valery  apple  must  not  be  passed  over;  the  flower 
has  a double  calyx  with  ten  divisions,  and  fourteen  styles  sur- 
mounted by  conspicuous  oblique  stigmas,  but  is  destitute  of  stamens 
or  corolla.  The  fruit  is  constricted  round  the  middle,  and  is  formed 
of  five  seed-cells,  surmounted  by  nine  other  cells.^'*  Not  being 


See  also  Knight  on  the  Apple-Tree,  in 
‘Transact,  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  vi.  p.  22i». 
‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  i. 

1812,  p.  120. 

‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  March 
13th,  1866,  p.  194. 

‘Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’vol.  iv.  p. 
68.  For  Knight’s  case,  vol.  vi.  p. 
547.  When  the  coccus  first  appeared 
in  this  country,  it  is  said  (vol.  ii.  p. 
]63)  that  it  was  more  injurious  to 
crab-stocks  than  to  the  apples  grafted 
on  them.  The  Majetin  apple  has  been 
found  equally  free  of  the  coccus  at  Mel- 
bourne in  Australia  Gard.  Chron.’ 
1871,  p.  1065).  The  wood  of  this 
tree  has  been  there  anadysed,  and  it  is 
said  (but  the  fact  seems  a strange  one) 
that  its  ash  contained  over  50  per 
cent,  of  lime,  while  that  of  the  crab 
exhibiied  not  quite  23  per  cent. 
In  Tasmania  Mr.  Wade  (‘  Transact. 


New  Zealand  Institute,’ vol.  iv.,  1871, 
p.  431)  raised  seedlings  of  the  Siberian 
Bitter  Sweet  for  stocks,  and  he  found 
barely  one  per  cent,  of  them  attacked 
by  the  coccus.  Kiley  shows  (‘  Fifth 
Report  on  Insects  of  Missouri,’  1 873,  p. 
87)  that  in  the  United  States  some 
varieties  of  apples  are  highly  attrac- 
tive to  the  coccus  and  others  very 
little  so.  Turning  to  a very  different 
pest,  namely,  the  caterpillar  of  ;i 
moth  {Carpocapsa  'pomonellcC)^  Walsh 
affirms  (‘  The  American  Entomologist,’ 
April,  1869,  ]>.  160)  that  the  maiden- 
blush  “ is  entirely  exempt  from 
appl  -worms.”  So,  it  is  said,  are 
some  few  other  varieties ; whereas 
others  are  “ peculiarly  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  this  little  pest.” 

‘ Mem.  de  la  Sac.  Linn,  de  Paris, 
tom.  iii.,  1825,  p.  164;  and  Seringe. 

‘ Bulletin  Bot.’  1830,  p.  117. 


372 


FRUITS; 


Chap.  X. 


provided  with  stamens,  the  tree  requires  artificial  fertilisation ; and 
the  girls  of  St.  Valery  annually  go  to  ‘‘faire  ses  j^ommes,”  eacli 
marking  lier  own  fruit  with  a ribbon;  and  as  different  pollen  is 
used  the  fruit  differs,  and  we  here  have  an  instance  of  the  direct 
action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  mother  plant.  These  monstrous 
apples  include,  as  we  have  seen,  fourteen  seed-cells;  the  pigeon- 
apple,®^  on  the  other  hand,  has  only  four,  instead  of,  as  with  all 
common  apples,  five  cells;  and  this  certainly  is  a remarkable 
:liffe].*ence. 

In  the  catalogue  of  apples  published  in  1842  by  the  Horticultural 
Society,  897  varieties  are  enumerated  ; but  the  differences  between 
most'  of  them  are  of  comparatively  little  interest,  as  tbc'y  are  not 
‘jtrictly  inherited.  No  one  can  raise,  for  instance,  from  the  seed  of 
the  Ribston  Pippin,  a tree  of  the  same  kind  ; and  it  is  said  that  the 
‘ Sister  Ribston  Pippin  ” was  a white  semi-transparent,  sour- fleshed 
ap]'>le,  or  rather  large  crab.®'^  Yet  it  was  a mistake  to  suppose  that 
with  most  varieties  the  characters  are  not  to^  a certain  extent 
inherited.  In  two  lots  of  seedlings  raised  from  two  well-marked 
kinds,  many  worthless  crab-like  seedlings  will  appear,  but  it  is  now 
known  that  the  two  lots  not  only  usually  differ  from  each  other,  but 
resemble  to  a certain  extent  their  parents.  We  see  this  indeed  in 
the  several  sub-groups  of  Eussetts,  Sweetings,  Codlins,  Pearmains, 
Reinettes,  &c.,®^  which  are  all  believed,  and  many  are  known,  to  be 
descended  from  other  varieties  bearing  the  same  names. 

Pears  {Pyrus  communis). — I need  say  little  on  this  fruit,  which 
varies  much  in  the  wdld  state,  and  to  an  extraordinary  degree  when 
cultivated,  in  its  fruit,  flowers,  and  foliage.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  botanists  in  Europe,  M.  Decaisne,  has  carefully  studied 
the  many  varieties ;®®  although  he  formerly  believed  that  they  were 
derived  from  more  than  one  species,  he  now  thinks  that  all  belong 
to  one.  He  has  arrived  at  this  conclusion  from  finding  in  the 
several  varieties  a perfect  gradation  between  the  most  extreme 
characters ; so  perfect  is  this  gradation  that  he  maintains  it  to  be 
impossible  to  classify  the  varieties  by  any  natural  method.  M. 
Decaisne  raised  many  seedlings  from  four  distinct  kinds,  and  has 
carefully  recorded  the  variations  in  each.  Notwithstanding  this 
extreme  degree  of  variability,  it  is  now  positively  known  that  many 
kinds  reproduce  by  seed  the  leading  characters  of  their  race.®®  - 

Strawberries  {Fragaria). — This  fruit  is  remarkable  on  account 
of  the  number  of  species  which  have  been  cultivated,  and  from 


‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1849,  p. 
24. 

R.  Thompson,  in  ‘ Gardener’s 
Chron.,’  1850,  p.  788. 

Sageret,  ‘ Pomologie  Physiolo- 
giqne,’  1830,  p.  263.  Downing’s 
‘ Fruit  Trees,’  pp.  130,  134,  139,  &c. 
Loudon’s  ‘Gardener’s  Mag.,’  vol.  viii. 
p.  317.  Alexis  Jordan,  ‘ De  POrigine 


des  diverses  Varie't^s,’  in  ‘ Mem.  de 
I’Acad.  Imp.  de  Lyon,’  tom.  ii.,  1852, 
pp.  95,  114.  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’ 

185  \ pp.  774,  788. 

‘Comptes  Rendus,’  July  6th 

1863. 

‘Gardener’s  Chroniede,’  1856,  p 
804;  1857,  p.  820  ; 1862,  j).  1195 


Chap.  X. 


STRAWBERRIES. 


373 


their  rapid  improvement  within  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years.  Let 
any  one  compare  the  fruit  of  one  of  the  largest  varieties  exhibited 
at  our  Shows  with  that  of  the  wild  wood  strawberry,  or,  which 
will  be  a fairer  comparison,  with  the  somewhat  larger  fruit  of  the 
wild  American  Virginian  Strawberry,  and  he  will  see  what  prodigies 
horticulture  has  efected.^°®  Tlie  number  of  varieties  has  likewise 
increased  in  a surprisingly  rapid  manner.  Only  three  kinds  were 
knowm  in  France,  in  1746,  where  this  fruit  was  early  cultivated. 
In  1766  five  species  had  been  introduced,  the  same  which  are  now 
cultivated,  but  only  five  varieties  of  Fr  <<11  ria  ve&ca,  with  some 
sub- varieties,  had  been  produced.  At  the  present  day  the  varieties 
of  the  several  species  are  almost  innumerable.  The  species  consist 
of,  firstly,  the  wood  or  Alpine  cultivated  strawberries,  descended 
from  Ft  a native  of  Europe  and  of  North  America.  There 
are  eight  wild  European  varieties,  as  ranked  by  Duchesne,  of 
F.  vesca,  but  several  of  these  are  considered  species  by  some 
botanists.  Secondly,  the  green  stra^vberries,  descended  from  the 
European  F.  colina,  and  little  cultivated  in  England.  Thirdly, 
the  Hautbois,  from  the  European  F.  elntior.  Fourthly,  the  Scarlets, 
descended  from  F.  Virginian' t,  a native  of  the  whole  breadth  of 
North  America.  Fifthly,  the  Chili,  descended  from  F.  chi/oensis, 
an  inhabitant  ot  the  west  coast  of  the  temperate  parts  both  of 
North  and  South  America.  Lastly,  the  pines  or  Carolinas  (including 
the  old  Blacks),  which  have  been  ranked  by  most  authors  under 
the  name  of  F.  grandiflora  as  a distinct  species,  said  to  inhabit 
Surinam ; but  this  is  a manifest  error.  This  form  is  considered 
by  the  highest  authority,  M.  Gay,  to  be  merely  a strongly  marked 
race  of  F.  chiloensisF^  These  five  or  six  forms  have  been  ranked 
by  most  botanists  as  specifically  distinct ; but  this  may  be  doubted, 
for  Andrew  Knight,^®^  who  raised  no  less  than  400  crossed  strawy- 
berries,  asserts  that  the  F.  virginiana,  chiloensis  and  grandiflora 
may  be  made  to  breed  together  indiscriminately,”  and  he  found, 
in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  analogous  variation,  'Hhat 
similiar  varieties  could  be  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  any  one  of 
them.” 

Since  Knight’s  time  there  is  abundant  and  additional  evidence 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  American  forms  spontaneously  cross. 
We  owe  indeed  to  such  crosses  most  of  our  choicest  existing 


Most  of  the  largest  cultivated 
strawberries  are  the  descendants  of  F. 
grandiflora  or  chiloensis,  and  I have 
Been  no  account  of  these  f )rms  in 
their  wild  state.  Methuen’s  Scarlet 
(Downing,  ‘ Fruits,’  p.  527)  has 
“ immense  fruit  of  the  largest  size,’’  • 
and  belongs  to  the  section  descended 
from  F.  vitginiana  : and  the  fruit  of 
this  species,  as  1 hear  from  Prof.  A. 
Gray,  is  only  a little  larger  thaa  that 


of  F.  vesca,  or  our  common  wood- 
strawberry. 

‘ Le  Kraisiei',’  par  le  Comte  L.  de 
Lambertye,  1864,  p.  50. 

‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  iii. 
1820,  p.  207. 

See  an  account  by  Prof.  Decaisne, 
and  by  others  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron- 
icle,’ 1862,  p 335,  and  1858,  p.  172; 
and  Mr.  Barnet’s  paper  in  ‘ Hort 
Soc.  Transact.,’  vol.  vi.  1826,  p 170. 


374 


FRUITS : 


Chap.  X. 


varieties.  Knjc;lit  did  not  succeed  in  crossing  the  European  wood- 
strawberry  with  the  American  Scarlet  or  with  the  Hautbois. 
Mr.  Williams  of  Pitmaston,  however,  succeeded ; but  the  hybrid 
offspring  from  the  Hautbois,  though  fruiting  well,  never  produced 
seed,  with  the  exception  of  a single  one,  Avhich  reproduced  the 
parent  hybrid  form.^°^  Major  R.  Trevor  Clarke  informs  me  that 
he  crossed  two  members  of  the  Pine  class  (Myatt’s  B.  Queen  and 
Keen's  Seedling)  with  the  wood  and  hautbois,  and  that  in  each 
case  he  raised  only  a single  seedling;  one  of  these  fruited,  but 
was  almost  barren.  Mr.  W.  Smith,  of  York,  has  raised  similar 
hybrids  with  equally  poor  success.^®''  We  thus  see^°®  that  the 
European  and  American  species  can  with  some  difficulty  be  crossed; 
but  it  is  improbable  that  hybrids  sufficiently  fertile  to  be  worth 
cultivation  will  ever  be  thus  produced.  'J'his  fact  is  surprising, 
as  these  forms  structurally  are  not  widely  dis1i net,  and  are  some- 
times connected  in  the  districts  where  they  grow  wild,  as  I hear 
from  Professor  Asa  Gray,  by  puzzling  intermediate  forms. 

The  energetic  culture  of  the  Strawberry  is  of  recent  date,  and 
the  cultivated  varieties  can  in  most  cases  be  classed  under  some 
one  of  the  above  native  stocks.  As  the  American  strawberries 
cross  so  freely  and  spontaneously,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  they 
will  ultimately  become  inextricably  confused.  We  find,  indeed, 
that  horticulturists  at  present  disagree  under  which  class  to  rank 
some  few  of  the  varieties;  and  a writer  in  the  ‘Bon  Jardinier’ 
of  1840  remarks  that  formerly  it  was  possible  to  class  all  of  them 
under  some  one  species,  but  that  now  this  is  quite  impossible  with 
the  American  forms,  the  new  English  varieties  having  completely 
tilled  up  the  gaps  between  them.^°^  The  blending  together  of  two 
or  more  aboriginal  forms,  which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
has  occurred  with  some  of  our  anciently  cultivated  productions, 
we  see  now  actually  occurring  with  our  strawberries. 

The  cultivated  species  offer  some  variations  worth  notice.  The 
Black  Prince,  a seedling  from  Keen's  Imperial  (this  latter  being 
a seedling  of  a very  white  strawberry,  the  white  Carolina),  is 
remarkable  from  “ its  peculiar  dark  and  polished  surface,  and 
from  presenting  an  appearance  entirely  unlike  that  of  any  other 
kind.’‘^“®  Although  the  fruit  in  the  different  varieties  differs  so 
greatly  in  form,  size,  colour,  and  quality,  the  so-called  seed  (which 
corresponds  with  the  whole  fruit  in  the  plum)  with  the  exception 
of  being  more  or  less  deeply  embedded  in  the  pulp,  is,  according 
to  De  Jonghe,^°^  absolutely  the  same  in  all : and  this  no  doubt 


Transact.  Hort.  Soc./  vol.  v. 
1824,  p.  294. 

‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  Dec. 
30th,  1862,  p.  779.  See  also  Mr. 
Prince  to  the  same  effect,  ibid.,  1863, 
p.  418. 

For  additional  evidence  see 
‘ Journal  of  Horticultxire,’  Dec.  9th, 


1862,  p.  721. 

‘ Le  Fraisier,’  par  le  Comte  Le 
de  Lambertye,  pp.  221,  230. 

108  t Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  vi 

p.  200. 

‘ Gardenei'’s  Chron.,’  1858,  p 

173. 


Chap.  X. 


STRAWBERRIES. 


37-J 


may  be  accounted  for  by  the  seed  being  of  no  value,  and  conse- 
quently not  having  been  subjected  to  selection.  The  strawberry 
is  properly  three- leaved,  but  in  1761  Duchesne  raised  a single- 
leaved variety  of  the  European  wood-strawberry,  which  Linnaeus 
doubtfully  raised  to  the  rank  of  a species.  Seedlings  of  this 
variety,  like  those  of  most  varietie-;  not  fixed  by  long-continued 
selection,  often  revert  to  the  ordinary  form,  or  present  intermediate 
states.^^“  A variety  raised  by  Mr.  Myatt,^^^  apparently  belonging 
to  one  of  the  American  forms  presents  a variation  of  an  opposite 
nature,  for  it  has  five  leaves  ; Godron  and  Lambertye  also  mentio'h 
a five-leaved  variety  of  F.  colUna. 

The  Eed  Bush  Alpine  strawberry  (one  of  the  F.  vesai  section) 
does  not  produce  stolons  or  runners,  and  this  remarkable  deviation 
of  structure  is  reproduced  truly  by  seed.  Another  sub-variety, 
the  White  Bush  Alpine^  is  similarly  characterised,  but  when  pro- 
pagated by  seed  it  often  degenerates  and  produces  plants  with 
runners.^^^  A strawberry  of  the  American  Pine  section  is  also  said 
to  make  but  few  runners.^^'"^ 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  sexes  of  strawberries ; the  tree 
Hautbois  properly  bears  the  male  and  female  organs  on  separate 
plants,^^*  and  was  consequently  named  by  Duchesne  dioica ; but 
it  frequently  produces  hermaphrodites;  and  Bindley by  pro- 
pagating such  plants  by  runners,  at  the  same  time  destroying 
the  males,  soon  raised  a self-prolific  stock.  The  other  species 
often  showed  a tendency  towards  an  imperfect  separation  of  the 
sexes,  as  I have  noticed  with  plants  forced  in  a hot-house.  Several 
English  varieties,  which  in  this  country  are  free  from  any  such 
tendency,  when  cultivated  in  rich  soils  under  tlie  climate  of  North 
America commonly  produce  plants  with  separate  sexes.  Thus 
a whole  acre  of  Keen's  Seedlings  in  the  United  States  has  been 
observed  to  be  almost  sterile  from  the  absence  of  male  flowers ; 
but  the  more  general  rule  is,  that  the  male  plants  overrun  the 
females.  Some  members  of  the  Cincinnati  Horticultural  Society, 
especially  appointed  to  investigate  this  subject,  report  that  “ few 
varieties  have  the  flowers  perfect  in  both  sexual  organs,”  Ac.  The 
most  successful  cultivators  in  Ohio  plant  for  every  seven  row^s 
of  “ pistillata,”  or  female  plants,  one  row  of  hermaphrodites,  which 
afford  pollen  for  both  kinds;  but  the  hermaphrodites,  owing  to 
their  expenditure  in  the  production  of  pollen,  bear  less  fruit  than 
the  female  plants. 

The  varieties  differ  in  constitution.  Some  of  our  best  Engli^  h 


Godron,  ‘De  I'Espfece,’  tom.  i.  p. 

161. 

‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1851,  p. 

4-40. 

F.  Gloede  in  ‘ Gardener's  Chron.,’ 
18S2,  p.  1053. 

Downing's  ‘Fruits,’  p.  532. 
Barnet,  in  ‘ Hort.  Transact.,’ 


vol.  vi.  p.  210. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1847,  p. 

539. 

For  the  several  statements  with 
respect  to  the  American  strawberries, 
see  Downing,  ‘Fruits,*  p.  524;  ‘Gar- 
dener’s Chronicle,’  1843,  p.  188 ; 1847 
p.  539;  1861,  p.  717. 


376 


FRUITS : 


Chap,  X. 


kinds,  such  as  Keen’s  Seedlings,  are  too  tender  for  certain  parts 
of  North  America,  where  other  English  and  many  American 
varieties  succeed  perfectly.  That  splendid  fruit,  the  British  Queen, 
can  be  cultivated  but  in  few  places  either  in  EnglancV  or  France : 
but  this  apparently  depends  more  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  than 
on  the  climate;  a famous  gardener  says  that  “no  mortal  could 
grow  the  British  Queen  at  Slirubland  Park  unless  the  whole  nature 
of  the  soil  was  altered.”^^'^  La  Constantine  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
kinds,  and  can  withstand  Russian  winters,  but  it  is  easily  burnt 
by  the  sun,  so  that  it  will  not  succeed  in  certain  soils  either  in 
England  or  the  United  States.^^®  The  Filbert  Pine  Strawberry 
“requires  more  water  than  any  other  variety;  and  if  the  plants 
once  suffer  from  drought,  they  will  do  little  or  no  good  afterwards.” 
CuthiH’s  Black  Prince  Strawberry  evinces  a singular  tendency 
to  mildew  ; no  less  than  six  cases  have  been  recorded  of  thisj  variety 
suffering  severely,  whilst  other  varieties  growing  close  by,  and 
treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  were  not  at  all  infested  by 
this  fiingusd^*^  The  time  of  maturity  differs  much  in  the  different 
varieties : some  belonging  to  the  wood  or  alpine  section  produce 
a succession  of  crops  throughout  the  summer. 

iioo^.eberry  (liibes  grossulariu). — No  one,  I believe,  has  hitherto 
doubted  that  all  the  cultivated  kinds  are  sprung  from  the  wild 
plant  bearing  this  name,  which  is  common  in  Central  and  Northern 
Europe ; therefore  it  will  be  desirable  briefly  to  specify  all  the 
points,  though  not  very  important,  which  have  varied.  If  it  be 
admitted  that  these  differences  are  due  to  culture,  authors  perhaps 
will  not  be  so  ready  to  assume  the  existence  of  a large  number 
of  unknown  wild  parent-stocks  for  our  other  cultivated  plants. 
The  gooseberry  is  not  alluded  to  by  writers  of  the  classical  period. 
Turner  mentions  it  in  1578,  and  Parkinson  specifies  eight  varieties 
in  1629  ; the  Catalogue  of  the  Horticultural  Society  for  1812  gives 
149  varieties,  and  the  lists  of  the  Lancashire  nurseymen  are  said 
to  include  above  300  names,^^^  In  the  " Gooseberry  Grower's 
Register  ’ for  1862  I find  that  248  distinct  varieties  have  won  prizes 
at  various  periods,  so  that  a vast  number  must  have  been  exhibited. 
No  doubt  the  difference  between  many  of  the  varieties  is  very 
small ; but  Mr.  Thompson  in  classifying  the  fruit  for  the  Horti- 
cultural Society  found  less  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  of  the 
gooseberry  than  of  any  other  fruit,  and  he  attributes  this  “ to  the 
great  interest  which  the  prize-growers  have  taken  in  detecting 


Mi\  D.  Beaton,  in  ‘ Cottage 
Gardt^ner,’  1860,  p.  86.  See  also 
Cottage  Gardener,’  1855,  p.  88,  and 
many  other  authorities.  For  the 
Continent,  see  F.  Gloede,  in  ‘ Gar- 
dener’s Chronicle,’  1862,  p.  1053. 

“8  Rer.  W.  F.  Radclyffe,  in  ‘Jour- 
nal of  Hort.,’  March  14,  1865,  p. 


207. 

jVIr.  H.  Doubleday  ii*  *Gardorier’d 
Chron.,’  1862,  p.  110,1. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1854,  p. 

254. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Kncyclop.  of  Garden- 
ing,’ p.  930;  and  Alph.  Dc  Candtlle, 
‘ Gtograph.  Bot.,’  p.  910. 


Chap.  X.  THE  GOOSEBERRY.  377 

Borts  with  wrong  names/’  and  this  shows  that  all  the  kindSj 
numerous  as  they  are,  can  be  recognised  with  certainty. 

The  bushes  differ  in  their  manner  of  growth,  being  erect,  or 
spreading,  or  pendulous.  The  periods  of  leafing  and  flowering 
differ  both  absolutely  and  relatively  to  each  other  thus  the  White 
smith  produces  early  flowers,  which  from  not  being  protected 
by  the  foliage,  as  it  is  believed,  continually  fail  to  produce  fruit. 
The  leaves  vary  in  size,  tint,  and  in  dej)th  of  lobes ; they  are 
smooth,  downy,  or  hairy  on  the  upper  surface.  Th^3  branches 
are  more  or  less  downy  or  spinose ; the  Hedgehog  has  probably 
derived  its  name  from  the  singular  bristly  condition  of  its  shoots 
and  fruit.”  The  branches  of  the  wild  gooseberry,  1 may  remark, 
are  smooth,  with  the  exception  of  thorns  at  the  bases  of  the  buds. 
The  thorns  themselves  are  either  very  small,  few  and  single,  or 
very  large  and  triple ; they  are  sometimes  reflexed  and  much 
dilated  at  their  bases.  In  the  different  varieties  the  fruit  varies 
in  abundance,  in  the  period  of  maturity,  in  hanging  until  shrivelled, 
and  greatly  in  size,  “ some  sorts  having  their  fruit  large  during 
a very  early  period  of  growth,  whilst  others  are  small,  until  nearly 
ripe.”  The  fruit  varies  also  much  in  colour,  being  red,  yellow, 
green,  and  white — the  pulp  of  one  dark-red  gooseberry  being- 
tinged  with  yellow;  in  flavour;  in  being  smooth  or  downy, — few, 
however,  of  the  Eed  gooseberries,  whilst  many  of  the  so-called 
Whites,  are  downy ; or  in  being  so  spinose  that  one  kind  is  called 
Henderson’s  Porcupine.  Two  kinds  acquire  when  mature  a powdery 
bloom  on  their  fruit.  The  fruit  varies  in  the  thickness  and  vein- 
ing  of  the  skin,  and,  lastly,  in  shape,  being  spherical,  oblong,  oval, 
or  obovate.^^^ 

I cultivated  fifty-four  varieties,  and,  considering  how  greatly  the 
fruit  jdiffers,  it  was  curious  how  closely  similar  the  flowers  were  in 
all  these  kinds.  In  only  a few  I detected  a trace  of  difference  in  the 
size  or  colour  of  the  corolla.  The  calyx  differed  in  a rather  greater 
degree,  for  in  some  kinds  it  was  much  redder  than  in  others;  and 
in  one  smooth  white  gooseberry  it  was  unusually  red.  The  calyx 
also  differed  in  the  basal  part  being  smooth  or  woolly,  or  covered 
with  glandular  hairs.  It  deserves  notice,  as  being  contrary  to  what 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  law  of  correlation,  that  a 
smooth  red  gooseberry  had  a remarkably  hairy  calyx.  The  flowers 
of  the  Sportsman  are  furnished  with  very  large  coloured  bracteffi ; 
and  this  is  the  most  singular  deviation  of  structure  which  I have 
observed.  These  same  flowers  also  varied  much  in  the  number  of 
the  petals,  and  occasionally  in  the  number  of  the  stamens  and 
pistils ; so  that  they  were  semi-monstrous  in  structure,  yet  they 
produced  plenty  of  fruit.  Mr.  Thompson  remarks  that  in  tho 


Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener's  Magazine,’ 
vol.  i\^  18-28,  p.  112. 

The  fullest  account  of  the  goose- 
berry Is  given  by  Mr.  Thompson  in 


‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  i.,  2nd 
series,  1835,  p.  218,  from  which 
most  of  the  ioregeing  facts  are  taken. 


378 


FRUITS : 


Chap.  X, 


Pastime  gooseberry  extra  bracts  are  often  attached  to  the  sides  ol 
the  fruit.” 

The  most  interesting  point  in  tlie  history  of  the  gooseberry  is  the 
steady  increase  in  the  size  of  the  fruit.  Manchester  is  the  metro- 
])olis  of  the  fanciers,  and  prizes  from  five  shillings  to  five  or  ten 
pounds  are  yearly  given  for  the  heaviest  fruit.  The  ‘ Gooseberry 
Grower's  Register’  is  published  annually ; the  earliest  known  coj)y 
is  dated  1786,  but  it  is  certain  that  meetings  for  the  adjudication  of 
prizes  were  held  some  years  previously.^^  The  ‘ Register  ’ for  1845 
gives  an  account  of  171  Gooseberry  Shows,  held  in  different  places 
during  that  year ; and  this  fact  shows  on  how  large  a scale  the 
culture  has  been  carried  on.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  gooseberry  is 
said  to  weigh  about  a quarter  of  an  ounce  or  5 dwts , that  is,  120 
grains ; about  the  year  1786  gooseberries  were  exhibited  weighing 
10  dwts.,  so  that  the  weight  was  then  doubled;  in  1817  26  dwts.  17 
grs.  was  attained ; there  was  no  advance  till  1825,  when  31  dwts. 
16  grs.  was  reached  ; in  1830  ‘‘  Teazer  ” weighed  32  dwts.  13  grs. ; 
in  1841  “ Wonderful”  weighed  32  dwts.  16  grs. ; in  1844  '‘London” 
weighed  35  dwts.  12  grs.,  and  in  the  following  year  36  dwts.  16 
grs  ; and  in  1852,  in  Staffordshire,  the  fruit  of  the  same  variety 
j-eached  the  astonishing  weight  of  37  dwts.  7 grs.,’-^  or  896  grs. ; 
that  is,  between  seven  or  eight  times  the  weight  of  the  wild  fruit. 
1 hnd  that  a small  apple,  65  inches  in  circumference,  has  exactly 
this  same  weight.  The  “ London”  gooseberry  (which  in  1852  had 
altogether  gained  333  prizes)  has,  up  to  the  present  year  of  1875, 
never  reached  a greater  weight  than  that  attained  in  1852.  Perhaps 
the  fruit  of  the  gooseberry  has  now  reached  the  greatest  possible 
weight,  unless  in  the  course  of  time  some  new  and  distinct  variety 
shall  arise. 

This  gradual,  and  on  the  whole  steady  increase  of  weight  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  to  the  year  1852,  is  probably  in 
large  part  due  to  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  for  extreme  care 
is  now  taken ; the  branches  and  roots  are  trained,  composts  are 
made,  the  soil  is  mulched,  and  only  a few  berries  are  left  on  each 
bush ; but  the  increase  no  doubt  is  in  main  part  due  to  the  con- 
tinued selection  of  seedlings  which  have  been  found  to  be  more  and 
more  capable  of  yielding  such  extraordinary  fruit.  Assuredly  the 
“ Highwayman”  in  1817  could  not  have  produced  fruit  like  that  of 
the  “Roaring  Lion'’  in  1825;  nor  could  the  “Roaring  Lion,”  though 
it  was  grown  by  many  persons  in  many  places,  gain  the  supreme 
triumph  achieved  in  1852  by  the  “ London  ” Gooseberry. 


‘ Catalogue  of  Fruits  of  Hort. 
Soc.  Garden,’  3rd  edit.  184-2. 

125  jyjj_  Clarkson,  of  Manchester,  on 
the  Culture  of  the  Gooseberry,  in 
Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Magazine,’  vol. 
iv.  1828,  p.  482. 

‘2®  Downing’s  ‘ Fruits  of  America,’ 

p.  213. 


‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1844,  p. 
811,  where  a table  is  given  ; ami  1845, 
p.  819.  For  the  extreme  weights 
gained,  ‘ Jourua/  of  Horticulture,’ 
July  26,  1864,  p.  61. 

*28  Mr.  Saul,  of  Lancaster,  in  Lou- 
don’s ‘Gardener’s  Mag.,’  vol.  ill.  1828 
p.  421  ; and  vol.  x.  1834.  p.  42. 


Chap..  X. 


WALNUT. 


379 


Walnut  {Jiiglans  regia). — This  tree  and  the  common  niit  belong 
to  a widely  different  order  from  the  foregoing  fruits,  and  are  there- 
fore here  noticed.  The  walnut  grows  wild  on  the  Caucasus  and  in 
the  Himalaya,  where  Dr.  Hooker  found  the  fruit  of  full  size,  but 
‘‘as  hard  as  a hickory-nut.”  It  has  been  found  fossil,  as  M.  de 
Saporta  informs  me,  in  the  tertiary  formation,  of  France. 

In  England  the  walnut  presents  considerable  differences,  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  fruit,  in  the  thickness  of  the  husk,  and  in  the 
thinness  of  the  shell ; this  latter  quality  has  given  rise  to  a variety 
called  the  thin-shelled,  which  is  valuable,  but  suffers  from  the 
attacks  of  tit-mice.^^*^  The  degree  to  which  the  kernel  tills  the 
shell  varies  much.  In  France  there  is  a variety  called  the  Grape 
or  cluster- walnut,  in  which  the  nuts  grow  in  “bunches  of  ten, 
fifteen,  or  even  twenty  together.”  There  is  another  variety  which 
bears  on  the  saipe  tree  differently  shaped  leaves,  like  the  hetero- 
phyllous hornbeam;  this  tree  is  also  remarkable  from  having 
pendulous  branches,  and  bearing  elongated,  large,  thin-shelled 
nuts.^^^  M.  Cardan  has  minutely  described  some  siugular  physi- 
ological peculiarities  in  the  June-leating  variety,  which  produces 
its  leaves  and  flowers  four  or  five  weeks  later  than  the  common 
varieties ; and  although  in  August  it  is  apparently  in  exactly  the 
same  state  of  forwardness  as  the  other  kinds,  it  retains  its  leaves  and 
fruit  much  later  in  the  autumn.  These  constitutional  peculiarities 
are  strictly  inherited.  Lastly,  walnut-trees,  which  are  properly 
monoicous,  sometimes  entirely  fail  to  produce  male  flowersd^ 

Nuts  {(Jorytufi  avellana). — Most  botanists  rank  all  the  varieties 
under  the  same  species,  the  common  wild  nut.^^^  The  husk,  or 
involucre,  differs  greatly,  being  exti-emely  short  in  Barr’s  Spanish, 
and  extremely  long  in  filberts,  in  which  it  is  contracted  so  as  to 
prevent  the  nut  falling  out.  This  kind  of  husk  also  protects  the 
nut  from  birds,  for  titmice  {Purus)  have  been  observed  to  pass 
over  filberts,  and  attack  cobs  and  common  nuts  growing  in  the 
same  orchard.  In  the  purple-filbert  the  husk  is  purple,  and  in  the 
frizzled-filbert  it  is  curiously  laciniated;  in  the  red-filbert  the 
pellicle  of  the  kernel  is  red.  The  shell  is  thick  in  some  varieties, 
but  is  thin  in  Cosfbrd’s-nut,  and  in  one  variety  is  of  a bluish  colour. 
The  nut  itself  differs  much  in  size  and  shape,  being  ovate  and 
compressed  in  filberts,  nearly  round  and  of  great  size  in  cobs  and 


’2*  ‘ Himalayan  Journals,’  1854, 
vol.  ii.  p.  334.  Moorcroft  (‘Travels,’ 
vol.  ii.  p.  146)  describes  four  varieties 
cultivated  in  Kashmir. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1850, 
p.  723. 

Paper  translated  in  Loudon’s 
‘Gardener’s  Mag.,’  1829,  vol.  v.  p, 
202. 

Quoted  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’ 


1849,  p.  101. 

‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  18475 
pp.  541  and  558. 

The  following  details  are  taken 
from  the  ‘Catalogue  of  Fruits,  1842, 
in  Garden  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  p.  103 ; and 
from  Loudon’s  ‘ Encyclop.  of  Garden- 
ing,’ p.  943. 

‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1860,  p 

95G. 


380 


CUCURBIT AOEO us  PLANTS. 


Chap.  X. 


Spanish  nuts,  oblong  and  longitudinally  striated  in  Cosford’s,  and 
obiusely  four-sided  in  the  Downton  Square  nut. 

CumrbUaceous  pl(i7its. — These  plants  have  been  for  a long  period 
the  opprobrium  of  botanists;  numerous  varieties  have  been  ranked 
as  si)ecies,  and,  what  happens  more  rarely,  forms  which  now  must 
be  considered  as  species  have  been  classed  as  varieties.  Owing  to 
the  admirable  experimental  researches  of  a distinguished  botanist, 
M.  Naudin,^^®  a flood  of  light  has  recently  been  thrown  on  this 
group  of  plants.  M.  Naudin,  during  many  years,  observed  and 
experimented  on  above  1200  living  specimens,  collected  from  all 
quarters  of  the  world.  Six  species  are  now  recognised  in  the  genus 
Cucurbita ; but  three  alone  have  been  cultivated  and  concern  us, 
namely,  C.  maxima  and  pepo,  which  include  all  pumpkins,  gourds, 
squashes,  and  the  vegetal3le  marrow,  and  C.  moschuta.  These  three 
species  are  not  known  in  a wild  state  ; but  Asa  Gray  gives  good 
reason  for  believing  that  some  pumpkins  are  natives  of  N.  America. 

These  three  species  are  closely  allied,  and  have  the  same  general 
habit,  but  their  innumerable  varieties  can  always  be  distinguished, 
according  to  Naudin,  by  certain  almost  fixed  characters ; and  what 
is  still  more  important,  when  crossed  they  yield  no  seed,  or  only 
sterile  seed ; whilst  the  varieties  spontaneously  intercross  with  the 
utmost  freedom.  Naudin  insists  strongly  (p.  15),  that,  though 
these  three  species  have  varied  greatly  in  many  characters,  yet  it 
has  been  in  so  closely  an  analogous  manner  that  the  varieties  can 
be  arranged  in  almost  parallel  series,  as  we  have  seen  with  the 
forms  of  wheat,  with  the  two  main  races  of  the  peach,  and  in  other 
cases.  Though  some  of  the  varieties  are  inconstant  in  character, 
yet  others,  when  grown  separately  under  uniform  conditions  of  life, 
are,  as  Naudin  repeatedly  (pp.  6.  16,  35)  urges,  “ douees  d une 
stabilite  presqne  comparable  a celle  des  especes  les  mieux  caracte- 
risees.'^  One  variety,  I’Orangin  (pp.  43,  63),  has  such  prepotency  in 
transmitting  its  character,  that  when  crossed  with  other  varieties  a 
vast  majority  of  the  seedlings  come  true.  Naudin,  referring  (p.  47) 
to  C.  pepo,  says  that  its  races  “ ne  different  des  especes  veritables 
qu’en  ce  qu’elles  peuvent  s’allier  les  unes  aux  autres  par  voie 
d’hybridite,  sans  que  leur  descendance  perde  la  faculte  de  se 
perpetuer.’’  If  we  were  to  trust  to  external  differences  alone,  and 
give  up  the  test  of  sterility,  a multitude  of  species,  would  have  to 
be  formed  out  of  the  varieties  of  these  three  species  of  Cucurbita. 
Many  naturalists  at  the  present  day  lay  far  too  little  stress,  in  my 
opinion,  on  the  test  of  sterility;  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that 
distinct  species  of  plants  after  a long  course  of  cultivation  and 
variation  may  have  their  mutual  sterility  eliminated,  as  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe  has  occurred  with  domesticated  animals. 
Nor,  in  the  case  of  plants  under  cultivation,  should  we  be  justified 


‘ Annales  des  Sc.  Nat.  Bot.’  4th  ‘American  Journ.  of  Science, 

series,  vol.  vi.  1856,  p.  5.  2ud  ser.  vol.  xxiv.  1857,  p.  442. 


Chap.  X. 


CUCUKBITACEOUS  PLANTS. 


381 


in  assuming  that  varieties  never  acquire  a slight  degree  of  mutual 
sterility,  as  we  sTiall  more  fully  see  in  a future  chapter  when  certain 
facts  are  given  on  the  high  authority  of  Gartner  and  Kolreuter.^^* 

The  forms  of  C.  jpepo  are  classed  by  Naudin  under  seven  sections, 
each  including  subordinate  varieties.  He  considers  this  plant 
as  probably  the  most  variable  in  the  world.  The  fruit  of  one 
variety  (pp.  33,  46)  exceeds  in  value  that  of  another  by  more  than 
two  thousand  fold!  When  the  fruit  is  of  very  large  size,  the 
number  produced  is  few  (p.  45) ; when  of  small  size,  many  are 
produced.  No  less  astonishing  (p.  33)  is  the  variation  in  the  shape 
of  the  fruit,  the  typical  form  apparently  is  egg-like,  but  this 
.becomes  either  drawn  out  into  a cylinder,  or  shortened  into  a flat 
disc.  We  have  also  an  almost  infinite  diversity  in  the  colour  and 
state  of  surface  of  the  fruit,  in  the  hardness  both  of  the  shell  and  of 
the  flesh,  and  in  the  taste  of  the  flesh,  whi.di  is  either  extremely 
sweet,  faiinaceous,  or  slightly  bitter.  The  seeds  also  differ  in  a 
slight  degree  in  shape,  and  wonderfully  in  size  (p.  34),  namely, 
from  six  or  seven  to  more  than  twenty-five  millimetres  in  length. 

In  the  varieties  which  grow  upright  or  do  not  run  and  climb, 
the  tendrils,  though  useless  (p.  31),  are  either  present  or  are  repre- 
sented by  various  semi-monstrous  organs,  or  are  quite  absent.  The 
tendrils  are  even  absent  in  some  running  varieties  in  which  the 
stems  are  much  elongated.  It  is  a singular  fact  that  (p.  31)  in  all 
the  varieties  with  dwarfed  stems,  the  leaves  closely  resemble  each 
( ther  in  shape. 

Those  naturalists  who  believe  in  the  immutability  of  species 
often  maintain  that,  even  in  the  most  variable  forms,  the 
characters  which  they  consider  of  specific  value  are  unchange- 
able. To  give  an  example  from  a conscientious  writer,^^^ 
who,  relying  on  the  labours  of  M.  Naudin,  and  referring  to 
the  species  of  fiucurbita,  says,  “ au  milieu  de  toutes  les  varia- 
tions du  fruit,  lestiges,  les  feuilles,  lescalices,  les  corolles,  les 
etamines  restent  invariables  dans  chacune  d’elles.”  Yet  M. 
Naudin,  in  describing  Cucurhita  pepo  (p.  30),  says,  “ Ici, 
d’ailleurs,  ce  ne  sont  pas  seulement  les  fruits  qui  varient,  c'est 
aussi  le  feuillage  et  tout  le  port  de  la  plante.  Neanmoins,  je 
crois  qn’on  la  distinguera  toujours  facilement  des  deux  autres 
especes,  si  ^Ton  veut  ne  pas  perdre  de  vue  les  caracteres 


Gartner,  ‘ Bastarderzeugung,’ 
1849,  s.  87,  and  s.  169  with  respect 
to  Maize;  on  V^rbascum,  ibid.,  ss.  92 
and  181 ; also  his  ‘ Kenntniss  der  Be- 
fruchtuug,”  s.  137.  With  respect  to 


Nicotiana,  see  Kolreuter,  ‘Zweite 
Forts.,’  1764,  s.  53  ; though  this  is  a 
somewhat  diiferent  case. 

139  i j)g  I’Espece,’  par  M.  Godron, 
tom.  ii.  p.  64. 


382 


CUCURBITAOEOUS  PLANTS. 


Chap.  X. 


dilterentiels  qne  jo  m’efforce  de  faire  reseortir.  Cea 
paracteres  sont  quelquefois  pen  marques  : il  arrive  momc  quo 
plus  i ours  d’eiitre  eux  s’ctfacent  presciue  entierement,  mais  ii  on 
reste  toujours  quelques-uns  qui  remettont  I’observateur  sur  la 
voio.”  Now  let  it  bo  noted  wliat  a difference,  with  regard  to 
the  immutability  of  the  so-called  specific  characters  this 
paragraph  pi'oduces  on  the  mind,  from  that  above  quoted  from 
M.  Godron. 

I will  add  another  remark  : naturalists  continually  assert 
that  no  important  organ  varies  ; but  in  saying  this  they 
unconsciously  argue  in  a vicious  cii'cle ; for  if  an  organ,  let  it 
be  what  it  may,  is  highly  variable,  it  is  regarded  as  un- 
important, and  under  a systematic  point  of  view  tins  is  quite 
correct.  But  as  long  as  constancy  is  thus  taken  as  the 
criterion  of  importance,  it  will  indeed  be  long  before  an 
important  organ  can  be  shown  to  be  inconstant.  The  enlarged 
form  of  the  stigmas,  and  their  sessile  position  on  the  summit 
of  the  ovary,  must  be  considered  as  important  characters,  and 
were  used  by  Gasparini  to  separate  certain  pumpkins  as  a 
distinct  genus  ; but  Naudin  says  (p.  20),  these  parts  have  no 
constancy,  and  in  the  flowers  of  the  Turban  varieties  of  C. 
maxima  they  sometimes  resume  their  ordinary  structure. 
Again,  in  G.  maxima,  the  carpels  (p.  19)  which  form  the 
turban  project  even  as  much  as  two-thirds  of  their  lengtli 
out  of  the  receptacle,  and  this  latter  part  is  thus  reduced  to  a 
sort  of  platform  ; but  this  remarkable  structure  occurs  only 
in  certain  varieties,  and  graduates  into  the  common  form  in 
which  the  carpels  are  almost  entirely  enveloped  within  the 
recejDtacle.  In  C.  moscliata  the  ovarium  (p.  50)  varies  greatly 
in  shape,  being  oval,  nearly  spherical,  or  cylindrical,  more 
or  less  swollen  in  the  upper  part,  or  constricted  round  the 
middle,  and  either  straight  or  curved.  "When  the  ovarium  is 
short  and  oval  the  interior  structure  does  not  differ  from  that 
of  C maxima  and  pepo,  but  when  it  is  elongated  t]ie  carpels 
occupy  only  the  terminal  and  swollen  portion.  I may  add 
that  in  one  variety  of  the  cucumber  {Cucumis  sativus')  the 
fruit  regularly  contains  five  carpels  instead  of  three. I 


Naudin,  in  ■ Annal.  de-s  Sc.  Nat.,’  4th  ser.  Bot.  tom.  xi.  1859,  p.  28. 


Ceiap.  X. 


CrCURBTTACEOUS  PLANTS. 


?>83 


presume  that  it  will  not  be  disputed  that  we  here  liaYO 
instances  of  great  variability  in  organs  of  the  highest 
physiological  importance,  and  with  most  plants  of  the  highest 
classificatory  importance. 

Sageret^^^  and  Naiidin  found  that  the  cucumber  {O.  sativtis) 
could  not  be  crossed  with  any  other  species  of  the  genus ; therefore 
no  doubt  it  is  specifically  distinct  from  the  melori._  This  will 
appear  to  most  persons  a superfluous  statement;  yet  we  hear  from 
Naudin^^^  that  there  is  a race  of  melons,  in  which  the  fruit  is 
so  like  that  of  the  cucumber,  “ both  externally  and  internally,  that 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  except 
by  the  leaves.”  The  varieties  of  the  melon  seem  to  be  endless, 
for  Nandin  after  six  years’  study  had  not  come  to  the  end  of  them  ; 
he  divides  them  into  ten  sections,  including  numerous  sub- varieties 
which  all  intercross  with  perfect  ease.^^^  Of  the  forms  considered 
by  Naudin  to  be  varieties,  botanists  have  made  thirty  distinct 
species ! “ and  they  had  not  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the 
multitude  of  new  forms  which  have  appeared  since  their  time.” 
Nor  is  the  creation  of  so  many  species  at  all  surprising  when  we 
consider  how  strictly  their  characters  are  transmitted  by  seed, 
and  how  wonderfully  they  differ  in  appearance  : ‘‘  Mira  est  qnideni 
foliorum  et  habitus  diversitas,  sed  multo  magis  fructuum,”  says 
Naudin.  The  fruit  is  the  valuable  part,  and  this,  in  accordance 
with  the  common  rule,  is  the  most  modified  part.  Some  melons 
are  only  as  large  as  small  plums,  others  weigh  as  much  as  sixty-six 
pounds.  One'  variety  has  a scarlet  fruit ! Another  is  not  more 
than  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  sometimes  more  than  a yard  in 
length,  twisting  about  in  all  directions  like  a serpent.”  It  is 
a singular  fact  that  in  this  latter  variety  many  parts  of  the  plant, 
namely,  the  stems,  the  footstalks  of  the  female  flowers,  the  middle 
lobe  of  the  leaves,  and  especially  the  ovarium,  as  well  as  the  mature 
fruit,  all  show  a strong  tendency  to  become  elongated.  Several 
varieties  of  the  melon  are  interesting  from  assuming  the  charateristic 
features  of  distinct  species  and  even  of  distinct  though  allied 
genera : thus  the  serpent-melon  has  some  resemblance  to  the  fruit 
of  Trichosardhes  anguina ; we  have  seen  that  other  varieties  closely 
resemble  cucumbers;  some  Egyptian  varieties  have  their  seeds 
attached  to  a portion  of  the  pulp,  and  this  is  characteristic  of 
certain  wild  forms.  Lastly,  a variety  of  melon  from  Algiers  is 


‘ M^moire  sur  les  Cucurbitacees,’ 
1826,  pp.  6,  24. 

142  4 p]ore  des  Serres,’  Oct.  1861, 
quoted  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’ 
1861,  p.  1 135.  I have  often  consulted 
and  taken  some  facts  from  M.  Naudin’s 


Memoir  on  Cucumis  in  ‘ Annal.  des  Sc. 
Nat.,’  4th  series,  Bot.  tom.  xi.  1859, 
p.  5; 

See  also  Sagoret’s  ‘ Memoire/ 

p.  7. 


384 


TRKES : 


CUAP  X. 


romarkable  from  announcing  its  maturity  by  a spontaneous 
and  almost  sudden  dislocation/’  when  deep  cracks  suddenly  appear, 
and  the  fruit  falls  to  pieces;  and  this  occurs  with  the  wild  0.  momor- 
dica.  Finally,  M.  Naudin  well  remarks  that  this  “extraordinary 
production  of  races  and  varieties  by  a single  species  and  their 
pei-manence  when  not  interfered  with  by  crossing,  are  phenomena 
^v'cll  calculated  to  cause  reflection.” 


Useful  aitd  Ornamental  Trees. 

Trees  deserve  a passing  notice  on  account  of  the  numerous  varieties 
which  they  present,  differing  in  their  precocity,  in  their  manner  of 
growth,  their  foliage,  and  bark.  Thus  of  the  common  ash  (Fraxlniis 
excelsior')  the  catalogue  of  Messrs.  Lawson  of  Edinburgh  includes 
twenty-one  varieties,  some  of  which  differ  much  in  their,  bark; 
there  is  a yellow,  a streaked  reddish-white,  a purple,  a wart-barked 
and  a fungous-barked  variety.^^^  Of  hollies  no  less  than  eighty-four 
varieties  are  grown  alongside  each  other  in  Mr.  Paul’s  nursery.’'*^ 
In  the  case  of  trees,  all  the  recorded  varieties,  as  far  as  I can  find 
out,  have  been  suddenly  produced  by  one  single  act  of  variation. 
The  length  of  time  required  to  raise  many  generations,  and  the  little 
value  set  on  the  fanciful  varieties,  explains  how  it  is  that  successive 
modifications  have  not  been  accumulated  by  selection ; hence, 
also,  it  follows  that  we  do  not  here  meet  with  sub- varieties  subor- 
dinate to  varieties,  and  these  again  subordinate  to  higher  groups. 
On  the  Continent,  however,  where  the  forests  are  more  carefully 
attended  to  than  in  England,  Alph.  De  Candolle says  that  there 
is  not  a forester  who  does  not  search  for  seeds  from  that  variety 
which  he  esteems  the  most  valuable. 

Our  useful  trees  have  seldom  been  exposed  to  any  great  change 
of  conditions;  they  have  not  been  richly  manured,  and  the  English 
kinds  grow  under  their  proper  climate.  Yet  in  examining  extensive 
beds  of  seedlings  in  nursery-gardens  considerable  differences  may 
be  generally  observed  in  them;  and  whilst  touring  in  England 
I have  been  surprised  at  the  amount  of  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  same  species  in  our  hedgerows  and  woods.  But  as  plants 
vary  so  much  in  a truly  wild  state,  it  would  be  difficult  for  even 
a skilful  botanist  to  pronounce  wliether,  as  I believe  to  be  the 
case,  hedgerow  trees  vary  more  than  those  growing  in  a primeval 
forest.  Trees  when  planted  by  man  in  woods  or  hedges  do  not 
grow  whore  they  would  naturally  be  able  to  hold  their  place 
against  a host  of  competitors,  and  are  therefore  exposed  to  conditions 
not  strictly  natural : even  this  slight  change  would  probably  suffice 
to  cause  seedlings  raised  from  such  trees  to  be  variable.  Whether 
or  not  our  half-v/ild  English  trees,  as  a general  rule,  are  more 


Loudon’s  ‘ Arboretuin  et  Fvuti-  1096. 
cetum,’  vol.  ii.  p.  1217.  ‘ Geograph.  Bot./  p.  1096. 

• Gai’dener’.s  Chronicle/  1866,  p. 


Chap,  X. 


TKEES, 


385 


variable  than  trees  growing  in  their  laative  forests,  there  can  hardly 
be  a doubt  that  they  liave  yielded  a greater  number  of  strongly- 
marked  and  singular  variations  of  structure. 

In  manner  of  growth,  we  have  weeping  or  pendulous  varieties 
of  the  v/illow,  ash,  elm,  oak,  and  yew,  and  other  trees ; and  this 
weeping  habit  is  sometimes  inherited,  though  in  a singularly 
capricious  manner.  In  the  Lombardy  poplar,  and  in  certain 
fastigiate  or  pyramidal  varieties  of  thorns,  junipers,  oaks,  &c.,  we 
have  an  opposite  kind  of  jjrowth.  The  Hessian  oak,^^'^  which  is 
famous  from  its  fastigiate  habit  and  size,  bears  hardly  any  resem- 
blance in  general  appearance  to  a common  oak;  ‘'its  acorns  are 
not  sure  to  produce  plants  of  the  same  habit ; some,  however,  turn 
out  the  same  as  the  parent-tree.”  Another  fastigiate  oak  is  said 
to  have  been  found  wild  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  this  is  a surprising 
circumstance;  it  generally  comes  so  true  by  seed,  that  Le  Candolle 
considered  it  as  specifically  distinct.^'^^  The  fastigiate  Juniper 
(d.  suecica)  likewise  transmits  its  character  by  seed.^'^®  Dr.  Falconer 
informs  me  that  in  the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Calcutta  the  great  heat 
caused  aj^ple-trees  to  become  fastigiate  ; and  we  thus  see  the  same 
result  following  from  the  effects  of  climate  and  from  some  unknown 
cause.^"® 

In  foliage  we  have  variegated  leaves  which  are  often  inherited, 
dark  purple  or  red  leaves,  as  in  the  hazel,  barberry,  and  beech, 
the  colour  in  these  two  latter  trees  being  sometimes  strongly  and 
sometimes  weakly  inherited ; deeply-cut  leaves;  and  leaves 
covered  with  prickles,  as  in  the  variety  of  the  holly  well  called 
ferox,  which  is  said  to  reproduce  itself  by  seetl.^'®  In  fact,  nearly 
all  the  peculiar  varieties  evince  a tendency,  more  or  less  strongly 
marked,  to  reproduce  themselves  by  seed.^^®  This  is  to  a certain 
extent  the  case,  according  to  Bosc/®^  with  tlu’ee  varieties  of  the 
elm,  namely,  the  broad-leafed,  lime-leafed,  and  twisted  elm,  in  which 
latter  the  fibres  of  the  wood  are  twisted.  Even  with  the  hetero- 
phyllous hornbeam  (Carpinm  betuhis),  which  bears  on  each  twig 
leaves  of  two  shapes,  “ several  plants  raised  from  seed  all  retained 
“the  same  peculiarity.”^^®  I will  add  only  one  other  remarkable 
case  of  variation  in  foliage,  namely,  the  occurrence  of  two  sub- 
varieties  of  the  ash  with  simple  instead  of  pinnated  leaves,  and 


‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1842,  p. 

?'6. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Arboretum  et  Fruti- 
cetum,’  vol.  iii.  p.  1731. 

Ibid.,’  vol.  iv.  p.  2489. 

Godron  (‘  De  I’Espece,’  tom.  ii. 
p.  91)  describes  four  varieties  of  Ro- 
binia  remarkable  from  their  manner 
of  growth. 

‘Journal  of  a Horticultural 
Tour,  by  Caledonian  Hort.  Soc.,’  1823, 
p.  107.  Alph.  De  Candolle,  ‘ Geo- 

26 


graph.  Bot.,’  p.  1083.  Verlot,  ‘ S il- 
ia Production  des  Variete's,’  1865  ; p. 
55  for  the  Barberry. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Arboretum  et  Fruti- 
cetum,’  vol.  ii.  p.  508. 

N’ei’iot,  ‘ Des  I’arieles,’  1£S5, 

p.  92. 

Loudon’s  ‘Arboretum  et  Fruti- 
cetum,’  vol.  iii.  p.  1376. 

‘Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1841 
p.  687. 


386 


TKEES. 


Chap.  "X 


which  generally  transmit  their  character  by  seed.^'’’®  The  occur- 
rence, in  trees  belonging  to  widely  different  orders,  of  weeping 
and  fastigate  varieties,  and  of  trees  bearing  deeply  cut,  variegated, 
and  purple  leaves,  shows  that  these  deviations  of  structure  must 
result  from  some  very  general  physiological  laws. 

Differences  in  general  appearance  and  foliage,  not  more  strongly 
marked  than  those  above  indicated,  have  led  good  observers  to 
rank  as  distinct  species  certain  forms  which  are  now  known  to  be 
mere  varieties.  Thus,  a plane-tree  long  cultivated  in  England 
was  considered  by  almost  every  one  as  a North  American  species  : 
but  is  now  ascertained  by  old  records,  as  I am  informed  by  Dr. 
Hooker,  to  be  a variety.  So,  again,  the  Thuja  pendula  or  filiformh 
was  ranked  by  such  good  observers  as  Lambert,  Wallich,  and 
others,  as  a true  species ; but  it  is  now  known  that  the  original 
plants,  five  in  number,  suddenly  appeared  in  a bed  of  seedlings, 
raised  at  Mr.  Loddige’s  nursery,  from  T.  orieutalis;  and  Dr.  Hooker 
has  adduced  excellent  evidence  that  at  Turin  seeds  of  -^'.  pendula 
have  reproduced  the  parent  tbrm,  T.  orientalis}^'^ 

Every  one  must  have  noticed  how  certain  individual  trees  regu- 
larly put  forth  and  shed  their  leaves  earlier  or  later  than  others 
of  the  same  species.  There  is  a famous  horse-chesnut  in  the 
Tuileries  which  is  named  from  leafing  so  much  earlier  than  the 
others.  There  is  also  an  oak  near  Edinburgh  which  retains  its 
leaves  to  a very  late  period.  I'hese  differences  have  been  attributed 
by  some  authors  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  trees  gTOv\^ ; 
but  Archbishop  Whately  grafted  an  early  thorn  on  a late  one,  and 
vire  versa,  and  both  grafts  kept  to  their  proper  periods,  which 
differed  by  about  a fortnight,  as  if  they  still  grew  on  their  own 
stocks.^^^  There  is  a Cornish  variety  of  the  elm  which  is  almost 
an  evergreen,  and  is  so  tender  that  the  shoots  are  often  killed 
by  the  frost;  and  the  varieties  of  the  Turkish  oak  {Q.  cerris)  may 
be  arranged  as  deciduous,  sub-evergreen,  and  evergreen.^-® 

Scotch  Fir  {Pinus  sylvestris). — I allude  to  this  tree  as  it  bears  on 
the  question  of  the  greater  variability  of  our  hedgerow  trees  com- 
pared with  those  under  strictly  natural  conditions.  A well-informed 
writer  states  that  the  Scotch  fir  presents  few  varieties  in  its 
native  Scotch  forests;  but  that  it  ‘‘varies  much  in  figure  and 
“ foliage,  and  in  the  size,  shape,  and  colour  of  its  cones,  when  several 
“ generations  have  been  produced  away  from  its  native  locality.” 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  highland  and  lowland  varieties  differ 
in  the  value  of  their  timber,  and  that  they  can  be  propagated  truly 


Godron,  ‘ De  I’Espece,’  tom.  ii. 
p.  89.  Ill  Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Mag.,’ 
vol.  ’xii.,  1836,  p.  371,  a variegate  I 
bushy  ash  is  described  and  figured,  as 
having  simple  leaves  ; it  originated  in 
Ireland. 

‘Gardener’-  Chron.,’  1863,  p. 

575. 


Quoted  from  Royal  Irish  Aca- 
demy in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1841,  p. 
767. 

Loudon’s  ‘Arboretum  et  Kruti- 
cetum  for  Elm,  see  vol.  iii.  p.  1376  ; 
for  Oak,  p.  1846. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  184 1,  p. 

822. 


Chap.  X. 


TKEES. 


387 


hy  seed ; thus  justifying  Loudon's  remark,  that  “ a variety  is  often 
of  as  much  importance  as  a species,  and  sometimes  far  more  so.”^®’ 
1 may  mention  one  rather  important  point  in  which  this  tree  occa- 
sionally varies;  in  the  classification  of  the  Conifer?e,  sections  are 
founded  on  whether  two,  three,  or  five  leaves  are  included  in  the 
same  sheath;  the  Scotch  fir  has  properly  only  two  leaves  thus 
enclosed,  but  specimens  have  been  observed  with  groups  of  three 
leaves  in  a sheath/®^  Besides  these  differences  in  the  somi-culti- 
vated  Scotch  fir,  there  are  in  several  parts  of  Europe  natural  or 
geographical  races,  which  have  been  ranked  by  some  authors  as 
distinct  species.^®^  Loudon considers  F.  pumHio,  with  its  several 
sub-varieties,  as  mughuH,  nana,  (fec.,which  differ  much  when  planted 
in  different  soils,  and  only  come  “tolerably  true  from  seed,”  as 
alpine  varieties  of  the  Scotch  tir ; if  this  were  proved  to  be  the  case, 
it  would  be  an  interesting  fact  as  showing  that  dwarfing  from  long 
exposure  to  a severe  climate  is  to  a certain  extent  inherited. 

The  Hawthorn  {(Jratoegus  oxyacantha)  has  varied  much.  Besides 
endless  slighter  variations  in  the  form  of  the  leaves,  and  in  the  size, 
hardness,  fleshiness,  and  shape  of  the  berries,  Loudon^®®  enum.erates 
twenty-nine  well-  marked  varieties.  Besides  those  cultivated  for 
their  pretty  flowers,  there  are  others  with  golden-yellow,  black,  and 
whitish  berries;  others  with  woolly  berries,  and  others  with  re- 
curved thorns.  Loudon  truly  remarks  that  the  chief  reason  why 
the  hawthorn  has  yielded  more  varieties  than  most  other  trees, 
is  that  nurserymen  select  any  remarkable  v^ariety  out  of  the 
immense  beds  of  seedlings  which  are  annually  raised  for  making 
hedges.  The  flowers  of  the  hawthorn  usually  include  from  one  to 
three  pistils;  but  in  two  varietias,  named  inonoyyna  and  sihirica, 
there  is  only  a single  pistil ; and  d’Asso  states  that  the  common 
thorn  in  Spain  is  constantly  in  this  state.^®®  There  is  also  a variety 
which  is  apetalous,  or  has  its  petals  reduced  to  mere  rudiments. 
The  famous  Glastonbury  thorn  flowws  and  leafs  towards  the  end  of 
December,  at  which  time  it  bears  berries  produced  from  an  earlier 
crop  of  flowers. ^®'^  It  is  worth  notice  that  several  varieties  of  the 
hawthorn,  as  well  as  of  the  lime  and  juniper,  are  very  distinct  in 
their  foliage  and  habit  whilst  young,  but  in  the  course  of  thirty  or 
forty  years  become  extremely  like  each  other ;’-®®  thus  reminding  us 
of  the  well-known  fact  that  the  deodar,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  and 


161  i Arboretum  et  Fruticetum,’ 
vol.  iv.  p.  2150. 

‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1852,  p. 

()93. 

See  ‘ Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  . 
Furopaischer  Pinus-arten  von  Dr. 
Christ.:  Flora,  1864.’  He  shows  that 
in  the  Ober-Engadin  P.  syhestris  and 
montana  are  connected  by  interme- 
diate links. 


16-*  ‘Arboretum  et  Fruticetum/  rol. 
iv.  ])p.  2159  and  2189. 

Ibid.,’ vol.  ii.  p.  830;  Loudon’s 
‘ Gardener’s  Mag.,’  vol.  vi.  IS.'h),  p. 
714. 

Loudon's  ‘ Arboretum  et  Fru- 
ticetum,’  vol.  ii.  p.  834. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Mag.,’  vrl. 
ix.  1833,  p.  123. 

Ibid.,  vol.  xi.  1835,  p.  503. 


3S8 


FLOWEflS. 


Chap,  X, 


that  of  the  Atlas,  are  distinguished  with  the  greatest  case  whilst 
young,  but  with  difficulty  when  old. 

Floweks. 

I SHALL  not  for  several  reasons  treat  the  variability  of  plants  which 
are  cultivated  for  their  flowers  alone  at  any  great  length.  Many  of 
our  favourite  kinds  in  their  present  state  are  the  descendants  of 
two  or  more  species  crossed  and  commingled  together,  and  this 
circumstance  alone  would  render  it  difficult  to  detect  the  difference 
due  to  variation.  For  instance,  our  Koses,  Petunias,  Calceolarias, 
Fuchsias,  Verbenas,  Gladioli,  Pelargoniums,  &c,,  certainly  have  had 
a multiple  origin.  A botanist  well  acquainted  with  the  parent- 
forms  would  probably  detect  some  curious  structural  differences  in 
their  crossed  and  cultivated  descendant;  and  he  would  certainly 
observe  many  new  and  remarkable  constitutional  peculiarities.  I 
will  give  a few  instances,  all  relating  to  the  Pelargonium,  and  taken 
chiefly  from  Mr.  Beck,^“®  a famous  cultivator  of  this  plant : some 
varieties  require  more  water  thau  others;  some  are  “ very  impatient 
of  the  knife  if  too  greedily  used  in  making  cuttiegs;”  some,  when 
potted,  scarcely  show  a root  at  the  outside  of  the  ball  of  the  earth ;” 
one  variety  requires  a certain  amount  of  confinement  in  the  pot  to 
make  it  throv/-  up  a flower-stem ; some  varieties  bloom  well  at  the 
commencement  of  the  season,  others  at  the  close ; one  variety  is 
known,^'®  which  will  stand  “ even  pine-apple  top  and  bottom  heat, 
without  looking  any  more  drawn  than  if  it  had  stood  in  a common 
greenhouse ; and  Blanche  Fleur  seems  as  if  made  on  purpose  for 
growing  in  winter,  like  many  bulbs,  and  to  rest  all  summer.”  These 
odd  constitutional  peculiarities  would  enable  a plant  in  a state  of 
nature  to  become  adapted  to  widely  different  circumstances  and 
climates. 

Flowers  possess  little  interest  under  our  present  point  of  view, 
because  they  have  been  almost  exclusively  attended  to  and  selected 
for  their  beautiful  colour,  size,  perfect  outline,  and  manner  of 
growth.  In  these  particulars  hardly  one  long-cultivated  flower  can 
be  named  which  has  not  varied  greatly.  What  does  a florist  care 
for  the  shape  and  structure  of  the  organs  of  fructification,  unless, 
indeed,  they  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  flower  ? When  this  is  the 
case,  flow'ers  become  modified  in  important  points;  stamens  and 
pistils  may  be  converted  into  petals,  and  additional  petals  may  be 
developed,  as  in  all  double  flowers.  The  process  of  gradual  selection 
by  which  flowers  have  been  rendered  more  and  more  double,  each 
step  in  the  process  of  conversion  being  inherited,  has  been  recorded 
in  several  instances.  In  the  so-called  double  flowers  of  the 
Comjoositm,  the  corollas  of  the  central  florets  are  greatly  modified, 
find  the  modifications  are  likewise  inherited.  In  the  columbine 


‘Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1845,  p.  dener,’  1860,  p.  377.  See,  also  Mr. 
523.  Beck,  on  the  habits  of  Queen  Mab,  in 

D.' Beaton,  in  ‘Cottage  Gar-  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1845,  p.  226. 


Chap.  X. 


FLOWERS. 


389 


{Aquilegla  vulgarih)  some  of  the  stamens  are  converted  into  petals 
having  the  shape  of  nectaries,  one  neatly  fitting  into  the  otlier ; but 
in  one  variety  they  are  converted  into  simple  petals.^^^  In  the  hose 
in  hose  ” primulse,  the  calyx  becomes  brightly  coloured  and  enlarged 
so  as  to  resemble  a corolla;  and  Mr.  W.  Wooler  informs  me  that 
this  peculiarity  is  transmitted ; for  he  crossed  a common  polyanthus 
with  one  having  a coloured  calyx, and  some  of  the  seedlings 
inherited  the  colorrred  calyx  during  at  least  six  generations.  In  the 
hcn-and- chicken”  daisy  the  main  flower  is  surrounded  by  a brood 
of  small  flowers  developed  from  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  scales  of  the  in- 
volucre. A wonderful  poppy  has  been  described,  in  which  the  stamens 
are  converted  into  pistils ; and  so  strictly  was  this  peculiarity  inherited 
that,  out  of  154  seedlings,  one  alone  reverted  to  the  ordinary  and 
common  type.^''^  Of  the  cock’s-comb  {Celosia  cristatd),  which  is  an 
annual,  there  are  several  races  in  which  the  flower-stem  is  wonder- 
fully “fasciated”  or  compressed;  and  one  has  been  exhibited 
actually  eighteen  inches  in  breadth.  Peloric  races  of  Gloxinia 
speciosa  and  Antirrhinum  majus  can  be  propagated  by  seed,  and 
they  differ  in  a wonderful  manner  from  the  typical  form  both  in 
structure  and  appearance. 

A much  more  remarkable  modification  has  been  recorded  by  Sir 
William  and  Dr.  Hooker in  Begonia  frigida.  This  plant  properly 
produces  male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same  fascicles ; and  in  the 
female  flowers  the  perianth  is  superior;  but  a plant  at  Kew  pro- 
duced, besides  the  ordinary  flowers,  others  which  graduated  towards 
a perfect  hermaphrodite  structure ; and  in  these  flowers  the  perianth 
was  inferior.  To  show  the  importance  of  this  modification  under  a 
classificatory  point  of  viev/,  I may  quote  what  Prof.  Harvey  says, 
namely,  that  had  it  occurred  in  a state  of  nature,  and  had  a 
botanist  collected  a plant  with  such  flowers,  he  would  not  only  have 
placed  it  in  a distinct  genus  from  Begonia,  but  would  probably 
have  considered  it  as  the  type  of  a new  natural  order.”  This  modi- 
fication cannot  in  one  sense  be  considered  as  a monstrosity,  for 
analogous  structures  naturally  occur  in  other  orders,  as  with 
Saxifragse  and  Aristolochiacese.  The  interest  of  the  case  is  largely 
added  to  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Crocker’s  observation  that  seedlings  from 
the  normal  flowers  produced  plants  which  bore,  in  about  the  same 
proportion  as  the  parent-plant,  hermaphrodite  flowers  having  inferior 
perianths.  The  hermaphrodite  flowers  fertilised  with  their  own 
pollen  were  sterile. 

If  florists  had  attended  to,  selected,  and  propagated  by  seed  other 


Moquin-Tandon,  ‘ Elements  de 
Thatologie,’  1841,  p.  213. 

Sea  also  ‘ Cottage  Gardener,’ 
1860,  p.  133. 

Quoted  by  J\lph.  de  Candolle, 
‘Bibl.  Univ.,’  November  1862,  p.  58. 
Knight,  ‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’ 


vol.  iv.  p.  322. 

‘ Botanical  Magazine,’  tab.  5160, 
fig.  4;  Dr.  Hooker,  in  ‘Gardener’s 
Chron.,’  1860,  p.  190;  Prof.  Harvey, 
in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,*  1860,  p.  145  ; 
Mr.  Crocker,  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’ 
1861,  p.  1092. 


390. 


FLOWERS. 


Ciup.  X 


modifications  of  structure  besides  tliose  which  arc  beautiful,  a liost 
of  curious  varieties  would  certainly  have  been  raised ; and  they 
would  probably  have  transmitted  their  characters  so  truly  that  the 
cultivator  would  have  felt  ap;grieved,  as  in  the  case  of  culinary 
vegetables,  if  his  whole  bed  had  not  presented  a uniform  appearance. 
Florists  have  attended  in  some  instances  to  the  leaves  of  their  plant, 
and  have  thus  produced  the  most  elegant  and  symmetrical  patterns 
of  white,  red,  and  green,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pelargonium, 
are  sometimes  strictly  inherited^ Any  one  who  will  habitually 
examine  highly-cultivated  flowers  in  gardens  and  greenhouses  will 
observe  numerous  deviations  in  structure;  but  most  of  these  must 
be  ranked  as  mere  monstrosities,  and  are  only  so  far  interesting  as 
showing  how  plastic  the  organisation  becomes  under  high  cultiva- 
tion. From  this  point  of  view  such  works  as  Professor  Moquin- 
Tandoifs  " Teratologie’  are  highly  instructive. 

Aase.s. — These  flowers  offer  an  instance  of  a number  of  forms 
generally  ranked  as  species,  namely,  11.  centifolia,  (jallica,  alba, 
damascena,  spif/osissima,  hracteata,  tndica,  semperjlorens^  moHchata, 
&.G.,  which  have  largely  varied  and  been  intercrossed.  The  genus 
Rosa  is  a notoriously  difficult  one,  and,  though  some  of  the  above 
forms  are  admitted  by  all  botanists  to  be  distinct  species,  others  are 
doubtful ; thus,  with  respect  to  the  British  forms,  Babington  makes 
seventeen,  and  Bentham  only  five  species.  The  hybrids  from  some 
of  the  most  distinct  forms — for  instance,  from  A.  indica,  fertilised 
by  the  pollen  oi'  li.  centifolia — produce  an  abundance  of  seed ; I 
state  this  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Rivers,’''’^  from  whose  work  1 have 
drawn  most  of  the  following  statements.  As  almost  all  the  aboriginal 
forms  brought  from  different  countries  have  been  crossed  and  re- 
crossed, it  is  no  wonder  that  Targioni-Tozzetti,  in  speaking  of  the 
common  roses  of  the  Italian  gardens,  remarks  that  “ the  native 
country  and  precise  form  of  the  wild  type  of  most  of  them  are 
involved  in  much  uncertainty.”^^®  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Rivers  in  re- 
ferring to  ii.  indica  (p.  68)  says  that  the  descendants  of  each  group 
may  generally  be  recognized  by  a close  observer.  The  same  author 
often  speaks  of  roses  as  having  been  a little  hybridised;  but  it  is 
evident  that  in  very  many  cases  the  difterences  due  to  variation 
and  to  hybridisation  can  now  only  be  conjecturally  distinguished. 

The  species  have  varied  both  by  seed  and  by  bud  ; such  modified 
buds  being  often  called  by  gardeners  sports.  In  the  following 
chapter  I shall  fully  discuss  this  latter  subject,  and  shall  show  that 
bud-variations  can  be  propagated  not  only  by  grafting  and  budding,, 
but  often  by  seed.  Whenever  a new  rose  appears  wuth  any 
peculiar  character,  however  produced,  if  it  yields  seed,  Mr.  Rivers 


Alrh.  de  Candolle,  ‘Geograph. 
BoL,’  p.  1083;  ‘Gardener’s  Chron.’ 
1861,  p.  433.  The  inheritance  of  the 
white  and  golden  zones  in  Pelargonium 
largely  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  See  D.  Beaton,  in  ‘ Journal  of 


Horticulture,’  1861,  ]>.  64. 

‘Rose  Amateur’s  Guide,’  T. 
Rivers,  1837,  p.  21. 

‘ Journal  Hort.  Soc.,’  voi.  ix., 
1855,  p.  182. 


Oh^p.  X. 


FLOWERS. 


391 


(p.  ±)  fully  expects  it  to  become  the  parent-type  of  a new  family. 
The  tendency  to  vary  is  so  strong  in  some  kinds,  as  in  the  Village 
Maid  (EiverS;  p.  16),  that  when  grown  in  different  soils  it  varies  so 
much  in  colour  that  it  has  been  thought  to  form  several  distinct 
kinds;  Altogether  the  number  of  kinds  is  very  great : thus  M. 
riesportes,  in  his  Ca  talogue  for  1829,  enumerates  2562  as  cultivated 
in  France ; but  no  doubt  a large  proportion  of  tliese  are  mereiy 
nominal. 

It  would  be  useless  to  specify  the  many  points  of  difiteienco 
between  the  various  kinds,  but  some  constitutional  peculiarities 
may  be  mentioned.  Several  French  roses  (Rivers,  p.  12)  will  not 
succeed  in  England  ; and  an  excellent  horticulturist  remarks, 
that  “ Even  in  the  same  garden  you  will  find  that  a rose  that  will 
do  nothing  under  a south  wall  will  do  well  under  a north  one. 
That  is  the  case  with  I'aul  Joseph  here.  It  grows  strongly  and 
blooms  beautifully  close  to  a north  wall.  For  three  years  seven 
plants  have  done  nothing  under  a south  wall.”  Many  roses  can  be 
forced,  “ many  are  totally  unfit  for  forcing,  among  which  is  General 
Jacqueminot.”^®*^  From  the  effects  of  crossing  and  variation 
Mr.  Eivers  enthusiastically  anticipates  (p.  87)  that  the  day  will 
come  when  all  our  roses,  oven  moss-roses,  will  have  evergreen 
foliage,  brilliant  and  fragrant  flowers,  and  the  habit  of  blooming 
from  June  till  November.  ‘‘ A distant  view  this  seems,  but  per- 
severance in  gardening  will  yet  achieve  wonders,”  as  assuredly  it 
has  already  achieved  wonders. 

It  may  be  worth  while  briefly  to  give  the  well-known  history  of 
one  class  of  roses.  In  1798  some  wild  Scotch  roses  (A.  spinosissima) 
were  transplanted  into  a garden ; end  one  of  these  bore  flowers 
slightly  tinged  with  red,  from  which  a plant  was  raised  with  semi- 
monstrous  flowers,  also  tinged  with  red;  seedlings  from  this  flower 
were  semi-double,  and  by  continued  selection,  in  about  nine  or  ten 
years,  eight  sub-varieties  were  raised.  In  the  course  of -less  than 
twenty  years  these  double  Scotch  roses  had  so  much  increased  in 
number  and  kind,  that  twenty- six  well-marked  varieties,  classed  in 
eight  sections,  were  described  by  Mr.  Sabine.  In  1841  it  is  said 
that  three  hundred  varieties  could  be  procured  in  the  nursery- 
gardens  near  Glasgow ; and  these  are  described  as  blush,  crimson, 
purple,  red,  marbled,  two-coloured,  white,  and  yellow,  and  as 
differing  much  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  flower. 

Pansy  or  Heartsease  {Viola  tricolor^  &c.). — The  history  of  this 
flovrer  seems  to  be  pretty  well  known ; it  was  grown  in  Evelyn  s 
garden  in  1687 ; but  the  varieties  were  not  attended  to  till  1810-1812, 
when  Lady  Monke,  together  with  Mr.  Iiee,  the  well-known  nursery- 


The  Rev.  W.  F.  Eadclyffe,  in 
‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  March  14, 
1865,  p.  207. 

180  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1861,  p. 


181  Mr.  Sabine,  in  ‘ Transact.  Hort. 
Soc.,’  vol.  iv.  p.  285. 

182  ‘ An  Encyclop.  of  Plants,’  by  J. 
C.  Loudon,  1841,  p.  443. 


392 


FL0WE1J8. 


Chap.  X. 


man,  energetically  commenced  tlieir  culture;  and  in  the  course  of 
a few  years  twenty  varieties  could  be  purchased.^®^  At  about  the 
game  period,  namely  in  1813  or  1814,  Lord  Gambier  collected  some 
wild  plants,  and  his  gardener,  Mr.  Thomson,  cultivated  them, 
together  with  some  common  garden  varieties,  and  soon  effected  a 
great  improvement.  The  first  great  change  was  the  conversion  of 
the  dark  lines  in  the  centre  of  tlie  flower  into  a dark  eye  or  centre, 
which  at  that  period  had  never  been  seen,  but  is  now  considered 
one  of  the  chief  requisites  of  a first- rate  flower.  In  1835  a book 
entirely  devoted  to  this  flower  was  published,  and  four  hundred 
named  varieties  were  on  sale.  From  these  circumstances  this  plant 
seemed  to  me  worth  studying,  more  especially  from  the  great 
contrast  between  the  small,  dull,  elongated,  irregular  flowers  of  the 
wild  pansy,  and  the  beautiful,  flat,  symmetrical,  circular,  velvet- 
like flowers,  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter,  magnificently  and 
variously  coloured,  which  are  exhibited  at  our  shows.  But  when  I 
came  to  enquire  more  closely,  I found  that,  though  the  varieties 
were  so  modern,  yet  that  much  confusion  and  doubt  prevailed 
about  their  parentage.  Florists  believe  that  the  varieties  are 
descended  from  several  wild  stocks,  namely,  V.  tricolor,  lutea, 
(j  an  diflora,  amcena,  and  altaica,  more  or  less  intercrossed.  And 
when  I looked  to  botanical  works  to  ascertain  whether  these  forms 
ought  to  be  ranked  as  species,  I found  equal  doubt  and  confusion. 
Viola  altaica  seems  to  be  a distinct  form,  but  what  part  it  has  played 
in  the  origin  of  our  varieties  I know  not ; it  is  said  to  have  been 
crossed  with  V.  lutea.  Viola  amoena'^^^  is  now  looked  at  by  all 
botanists  as  a natural  variety  of  V.  grandiflora ; and  this  and  V. 
sudetica  have  been  proved  to  be  identical  with  V.  lutea.  The  latter 
and  V.  tricolor  (including  its  admitted  variety  V.  arvensis)  are 
ranked  as  distinct  species  by  Babington,  and  likewise  by  M.  Gay,^*‘* 
who  has  paid  particular  attention  to  the  genus;  but  the  specific 
distinction  between  V.  lutea  and  tricolor  is  chiefly  grounded  on  the 
one  being  strictly  and  the  other  not  strictly  perennial,  as  well  as  on 
some  other  slight  and  unimportant  differences  in  the  form  of  the 
stem  and  stipules.  Bentham  unites  these  two  forms ; and  a high 
authority  on  such  matters,  Mr.  H.  C.  Watson, says  that,  “ while 
V.  tricolor  passes  into  V.  arveims  on  the  one  side,  it  approximates 
so  much  towards  V.  lutea  and  V.  Gurtisii  on  the  other  side,  that  a 
distinction  becomes  scarcely  more  easy  between  them.” 

Hence,  after  having  carefully  compared  numerous  varieties,  1 


Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Magazine,’ 
vol.  xi.  18d5.  p.  427  ; also  ‘ Journal 
of  Horticulture,’  April  14,  18d3,  p. 
275. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Magazine,’ 
vol.  viii.  p.  575  : vol.  ix.  p.  689. 

Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  ‘ English  Flora,’ 
^ol.  i.  p.  306.  H.  C.  Watson,  ‘ Cybe'e 
Britannlca,’  vol.  i.  1847,  p.  181. 


Quoted  from  ‘Annales  des  Sci- 
ences,’ in  the  Companion  to  the  ‘hot. 
Mag.,’  vol.  i.  1835,  p.  159. 

‘Cybele  Britannica,’  vol.  i.  p. 
173.  See  also  Dr.  Herbert  on  the 
changes  of  colour  in  transplanted  spe- 
cimens, and  on  the  natural  variations 
of  grandiflora,  in  ‘Transact.  Hort 
Soc.’  vol.  iv.  p.  19. 


CiiAr.  X- 


FLOWEES. 


gave  lip  the  attempt  as  too  difficult  for  any  one  except  a professed 
botanist.  Most  of  the  varieties  present  such  inconstant  characters, 
that  when  grown  in  poor  soil,  or  when  flowering  out  of  their  proper 
season,  they  produced  differently  coloured  and  much  smaller 
flowers.  Cultivators  speak  of  this  or  that  kind  as  being  remark- 
ably constant  or  true;  but  by  this  they  do  not  mean,  as  in  other 
cases,  that  the  kind  transmits  its  character  by  seed,  but  that  the 
individual  plant  does  not  change  much  under  culture.  The 
principle  of  inheritance,  however,  does  hold  good  to  a certain  exteut 
even  vdth  the  fleeting  varieties  of  the  Heartsease,  for  to  gain  good 
sorts  it  is  indispensable  to  sow  the  seed  of  good  sorts.  Neverthe- 
less, in  almost  every  large  seed-bed  a few  almost  wild  seedlings 
reappear  through  reversion.  On  comparing  the  choicest  varieties 
with  the  nearest  allied  wild  forms,  besides  the  difference  in  the 
size,  outline,  and  colour  of  the  flowers,  the  leaves  sonietimes 
differ  in  shape,  as  does  the  calyx  occasionally  in  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  sepals.  The  differences  in  the  form  of  the  nectary 
more  especially  deserve  notice;  because  characters  derived  from 
this  organ  have  been  much  used  in  the  discrimination  of  most  of 
the  species  of  Viola.  In  a large  number  of  flowers  compared  in 
1842  I found  that  in  the  greater  number  the  nectary  was  straight ; 
in  others  the  extremity  was  a little  turned  upwards,  or  downwards, 
or  inwards,  so  as  to  be  completely  hooked ; in  others,  instead  of 
being  hooked,  it  was  first  turned  rectangularly  downwards,  and 
then  backwards  and  upwards;  in  others,  the  extremity  was  con- 
siderably enlarged ; and  lastly,  in  some  the  basal  part  was  depressed, 
becoming,  as  usual,  laterally  compressed  towards  the  extremity. 
In  a large  number  of  flowers,  on  the  other  hand,  examined  by  me 
in  1856  from  a nursery-garden  in  a different  part  of  England,  the 
nectary  hardly  varied  at  all.  Now  M.  Gay  says  that  in  certain 
districts,  especally  in  Auvergne,  the  nectary  of  the  wild  V.  grandi- 
flora  varies  in  the  manner  just  described.  Must  we  conclude  from 
this  that  the  cultivated  varieties  first  mentioned  were  all  descended 
from  V.  grandifiora,  and  that  the  second  lot,  though  having  the 
same  general  appearance,  w^ere  descended  from  V.  tricolor,  of  which 
the  nectary,  according  to  M.  Gay,  is  subject  to  little  variation  ? Or 
is  it  not  more  probable  that  both  these  wild  forms  would  be  found 
under  other  conditions  to  vary  in  the  same  manner  and  degree, 
thus  showing  that  they  ought  not  to  be  ranked  as  specifically 
distinct  ? 

The  Dahlia  has  been  referred  to  by  almost  every  author  who  has 
written  on  the  variation  of  plants,  because  it  is  believed  that  all  the 
varietk.'S  are  descended  from  a single  species,  and  because  all  have 
arisen  since  1802  in  France,  and  since  1804  in  England.^®®  Mr. 
Sabine  remarks  that  it  seems  as  if  some  period  of  cultivation  had 
been  required  before  the  fixed  qualities  of  the  native  plant  gave 


Salisbury,  in  ‘Transact.  Hort.  semi-double  variety  v/as  produced  in 
Soc.,’  vol.  i.  1812,  pp.  84,  92.  A Madrid  in  1790. 


394 


FLOWERS. 


Chat.  X 


way  and  began  to  sport  into  those  changes  which  no\v  so  delight 
^^g  »is9  flowers  have  been  greatly  modified  in  shape  from  a 

flat  to  a globular  form.  Anemone  and  ranuncnlus-like  races/^^ 
which  differ  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  florets,  have 
arisen;. also  dwarfed  races,  one  of  which  is  only  eighteen  inches  in 
Itcight.  The  seeds  vary  much  iu  size.  The  petals  are  uniformly 
coloured  or  tipped  or  striped,  and  present  an  almost  infinite 
diversity  of  tints.  Seedlings  of  fourteen  different  colours  have 
been  raised  from  the  same  plant;  yet,  as  Mr.  Sabine  has  remarke ), 
“many  of  the  seedlings  follow  their  parents  in  colour.”  The  period 
of  flowering  has  been  considerably  hastened,  and  this  has  probably 
been  effected  by  continued  selection,  Salisbury,  writing  1808, 
says  that  they  then  flowered  from  September  to  November ; in 
1828  some  new  dwarf  varieties  began  flowering  in  June;’®^  and 
Mr.  Grieve  informs  me  that  the  dwarf  purple  Zelinda  in  his  garden 
is  in  full  bloom  by  the  middle  of  June  and  sometimes  even  earlier. 
Slight  constitutional  differences  have  been  observed  between  certain 
varieties  : thus,  some  kinds  succeed  much  better  in  one  part  of 
England  than  in  another  and  it  has  been  noticed  that  some 
varieties  require  much  more  moisture  than  others.^®'^ 

Such  flowers  as  the  carnation,  common  tulip,  and  hyacinth,  which 
are  believed  to  be  descended,  each  from  a single  wild  form,  present 
innumerable  varieties,  differing  almost  exclusively  in  the  size,  form, 
and  colour  of  tlie  flowers.  These  and  some  other  anciently  culti- 
vated iDlants  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  offsets,  pipings, 
bulbs,  &c.,  become  so  excessively  variable,  that  almost  each  new 
plant  rai.'Cd  from  seed  forms  a new  variety,  “ all  of  which  to 
describe  particularly,”  as  old  Gerarde  wrote  in  1597,  “ were  to  roll 
Sisyphus’s  stone,  or  to  number  the  sands.” 

J-lyaciiitli  {Hyacinthus  oriental  is). — It  may,  however,  be  worth 
while  to  give  a short  account  of  this  plant,  which  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1596  from  the  Levaut.^®^  The  petals  of  the  original 
flower,  says  Mr.  Paul,  were  narrow,  wrinkled,  pointed,  and  of  a 
flimsy  texture ; now  they  are  broad,  smooth,  solid,  and  rounded. 
The  erectness,  breadth,  and  length  of  the  whole  spike,  and  the  size 
of  the  flowers,  have  all  increased.  The  colours  have  been  intensified 
and  diversified.  Gerarde,  in  1597,  enumerates  four,  and  Parkinson, 


189  t Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  iii., 
1820.  p.  225. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Gardener’s  Mag.,’  rol. 
vi.,  1830,  p.  77. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Encyclop.  of  Garden- 
ing,’ p.  1035. 

192  k Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  i. 
p.  91;  and  Loudon’s  ‘Gardener’s 
Mag.,’  vol.  iii.,  1828,  p.  179. 

Mr.  Wildman,  in  ‘ Gardener’s 
Chron.,’  1843,  p.  87.  ‘ Cottage  Gar- 

dener,’ April  8,  185i3,  p.  33. 


M.  Faivre  has  given  . an  inte- 
resting account  of  the  successive 
variations  of  the  Chinese  primrose, 
since  its  introduction  into  Europe 
about  the  year  1820:  ‘Revue  des 
Cours  Scientitiqucs,’  June,  1SG9,  p. 
428. 

The  best  and  fullest  account  of 
this  plant  which  I have  met  with  is 
by  a famous  horticulturist,  Mr.  I’aul, 
of  Waltham,  in  the  ‘Gardener’s 
Chronicle,'  1864,  p.  342; 


CiiAr,  X. 


FLOWERS. 


805 


in  1629,  eight  varieties.  Now  the  varieties  are  very  numerous,  and 
they  were  still  more  numerous  a century  ago.  Mr.  Paul  remarks 
that  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  Hyacinths  of  1629  with  those 
“ of  1864,  and  to  mark  the  improvement.  Two  hundred  and  tliirty- 
“ five  years  have  elapsed  since  then,  and  this  simple  flower  serves 
“ well  to  illustrate  the  great  fact  that  the  original  forms  of  nature 
“ do  not  remain  fixed  and  stationary,  at  least  when  brought  under 
“ cultivation  While  looking  at  the  extremes,  we  must  not,  how- 
“ ever,  forget  that  there  are  intermediate  stages  which  are  for  the 
“ most  part  lost  to  us.  Nature  will  sometimes  indulge  liehself 
''  with  a leap,  but  as  a rule  her  march  is  slow’  and  gradual.”  He 
adds  that  the  cultivator  should  have  ‘‘  in  his  mind  an  ideal  of 
“ beauty,  for  the  realisation  of  which  he  works  wdth  head  and 

hand.”  We  thus  see  how  clearly  Mr.  Paul,  an  eminently  success- 
ful cultivator  of  this  flower,  appreciates  the  action  of  methodical 
selection. 

In  a curious  and  apparently  trustworthy  treatise,  published  at 
Amsterdam  in  1768,  it  is  stated  that  nearly  2,000  sorts  were  then 
known  ; but  in  1864  Mr.  Paul  found  only  700  in  the  largest  garden 
at  Haarlem.  In  this  treatise  it  is  said  that  not  an  instance  is 
knowm  of  any  one  variety  reproducing  itself  truly ‘by  seed:  the 
wdiite  kinds,  however,  now  ^^'  almost  always  yield  white  hyacinths, 
and  the  yellow  kinds  come  nearly  true.  The  hyacinth  is  remark- 
able  from  having  given  rise  to  varieties  with  bright  blue,  pink,  and 
distinctly  yellow  flowers.  These  three  primary  colours  do  not 
occur  in  the  varieties  of  any  other  species ; nor  do  they  often  all 
occur  even  in  the  distinct  species  of  tiie  same  genus.  Although  the 
several  kinds  of  hyacinths  differ  but  slightl;y  from  each  other  except 
in  colour,  yet  each  kind  has  its  own  individual  character,  which 
(*aii  be  recognised  by  a highly  educated  eye  ; thus  the  writer  of  the 
Amsterdam  treatise  asserts  (p.  43)  that  some  experienced  florists, 
such  as  the  famous  G.  Yoorhelin,  seldom  failed  in  a collection  of 
above  twelve  hundred  sorts  to  recognise  each  variety  by  the  bulb 
alone!  This  same  writer  mentions  some  few  singular  variations: 
for  instance,  the  hyacinth  commonly  produces  six  leaves,  but  there 
is  one  kind  (p.  35)  which  scarcely  ever  has  more  than  three  leaves  ; 
another  never  more  than  five;  w’hilst  others  regularly  produce 
either  seven  or  eight  leaves.  A variety,  called  la  Coryphee,  in- 
variably produces  (p.  116)  two  flower-stems,  united  together  and 
covered  by  one  skin.  The  flower-stem  in  another  kind  (p.  128) 
comes  out  of  the  ground  in  a coloured  sheath,  before  the  appearance 
of  the  leaves,  and  is  consequently  liable  to  suffer  from  frost. 
Another  variety  always  pushes  a second  flower-stem  after  the  first 
has  begun  to  develop  itself.  Lastly,  white  hyacinths  with  red, 
purple,  or  violet  centres  (p.  129)  are  the  most  liable  to  rot.  Thus, 


‘Des  Jacinthes,  de  leur  Ana-  Alph.  de  Candolle,  ‘Geograph 

toniie,  ReproductLr  , et  Culture.’  Bot.,’  p.  1082 
Am:;tei'dam,  1768, 


896 


FLOWERS. 


Chav.  X. 


the  hyacinth,  like  vo  ma,ny  previous  plants,  wlien  long:  cultivated 
and  closely  watched,  is  found  to  offer  many  singular  variations. 

In  the  two  last  chapters  I have  given  in  some  detail  the 
range  of  variation,  and  the  history:,  as  far  as  known,  of  a 
considerable  number  of  plants,  which  have  been  cultivated 
for  various  purposes.  But  some  of  the  most  variable  plants, 
such  as  Kidney-beans,  Capsicum,  Millets,  Sorghum,  &c.,  have 
been  passed  over ; for  botanists  are  not  at  all  agreed  which 
kinds  ought  to  rank  as  species  and  which  as  varieties ; 
and  the  wild  parent-species  are  unknown. Many  plants 
long  cultivated  in  tropical  countries,  such  as  the  Banana, 
have  produced  numerous  varieties ; but  as  these  have  never 
been  described  with  even  moderate  care,  they  are  here  also 
passed  over.  Nevertheless,  a sufficient,  and  perhaps  more 
than  sufficient,  number  of  cases  have  h<^en  given,  so  that  the 
reader  may  be  enabled  to  judge  for  himself  on  the  nature  and 
great  amount  of  variation  which  cultivated  plants  have 
undergone. 


198  Alph.  de  Candolle,  ‘ Geograph.  Bot.,’  p.  983. 


Chap.  XI. 


BUD-YARIATIOX. 


397 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

ON  BUD- VARIATION’,  AND  ON  CERTAIN  ANOMALOUS  MODES  OF 
REPRODUCTION  AND  VARIATION. 

3HD-VARIATION  IN  THE  PEACH,  PLUM,  CHEERY,  VINE,  GOOSEBERRY,  CURRANT^ 
AND  BANANA,  AS  SHOWN  BY  THE  MODIFIED  FRUIT — IN  FLOWERS  I 
CAMELLIAS,  AZALEAS,  CHRYSANTHEMUMS,  ROSES,  ETC. — ON  THE  RUNNING 
OF  THE  COLOt  R IN  CARNATIONS — BUD-VARIATIONS  IN  LEAVES — VARIA- 
TIONS BY  SUCKERS,  TUBERS,  AND  BULBS — ON  THE  BREAKING  OF  TULIPS 
— BUD-VARIATIONS  GRADUATE  INTO  CHANGES  CONSEQUENT  ON  CHANGED 
CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — GRAFT-HYBRIDS —ON  THE  SEGREGATION  OF  THE 
PARENTAL  CHARACTERS  IN  SEMINAL  HYBRIDS  BY  BUD-VARIATION — ON 
THE  DIRECT  OR  IMMEDIATE  ACTION  OP  FOREIGN  POLLEN  ON  THE  MOTHER- 
PLANT — ON  THE  EFFECTS  IN  FEMALE  ANIMALS  OP  A PREVIOUS  IMPREG- 
NATION ON  THE  SUBSEQUENT  OFFSPRING — CONCLUSION  AND  SUMMARY. 

This  chapter  will  be  chiefly  devoted  to  a subject  in  many 
respects  important,  namely,  bud-variation.  By  this  term  I 
include  all  those  sudden  changes  in  structure  or  appearance 
which  occasionally  occur  in  full-grown  plants  in  their  flower- 
buds  or  leaf-buds.  Gardeners  call  such  changes  “ Sports 
but  this,  as  previously  remarked,  is  an  ill-defined  expression, 
as  it  has  often  been  applied  to  strongly  marked  variations  in 
seedling  plants.  The  difference  between  seminal  and  bud 
reproduction  is  not  so  great  as  it  at  first  appears ; for  each 
bud  is  in  one  sense  a new  and  distinct  individual ; but  such 
individuals  are  produced  through  the  formation  of  various 
kinds  of  buds  without  the  aid  of  any-  special  apparatus, 
whilst  fertile  seeds  are  produced  by  the  concourse  of  the  two 
sexual  elements.  The  modifications  which  arise  through 
bud-variation  can  generally  be  propagated  to  any  extent  by 
grafting,  budding,  cuttings,  bulbs,  &c.,  and  occasionally  even 
by  seed.  Some  few  of  our  most  beautiful  and  useful  pro- 
ductions have  arisen  by  bud-variation. 

Bud-variatious  have  as  yet  been  observed  only  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom ; but  it  is  probable  that  if  compound 
animals,  such  as  corals,  &c.,  had  been  subjected  to  a long 


398 


BUD-VAKIATION. 


Chap.  XL 


course  of  domestication,  they  would  have  varied  by  buds  ; 
for  they  resoaible  plants  in  many  respects.  For  instance,  any 
new  or  peculiar  character  presented  a compound  animal  is 
propagated  by  budding,  as  occurs  with  differently  coloured 
Hydras,  and  as  Mr.  Gosse  has  shown  to  De  The  case  with  a 
singular  variety  of  a true  coral.  Varieties  of  the  ITycb-a 
have  also  been  grafted  on  other  varieties,  and  haA’e  retained 
tlieir  character. 

I will  in  the  first  place  give  all  the  cases  of  bud  variations 
which  I have  been  able  to  collect,  and  afterwards  show  tlicir 
importance.’^  These  cases  prove  that  those  authors  who, 
like  Pallas,  attribute  all  variability  to  the  crossing  either  of 
distinct  races,  or  of  distinct  individuals  belonging  to  the 
same  race  but  somewhat  different  from  each  other,  are  in 
error ; as  are  those  authors  who  attribute  ail  variability  to 
the  mere  act  of  sexual  union.  Nor  can  we  account  in  all  cases 
for  the  appearance  through  bud-variation  of  new  cliaracters 
by  the  princible  of  reversion  to  long-lost  characters.  He 
who  wishes  to  judge  how  far  the  conditions  of  life  directly 
cause  each  particular  variation  ought  to  reflect  well  on  the 
cases  immediately  to  be  given.  I will  commence  with  bud 
variations,  as  exhibited  in  the  fruit,  and  then  pass  on  to 
flowers,  and  finally  to  leaves. 

Peach  {Amyg(halui^  persica). — In  the  last  chapter  I gave  two  cases 
of  a peach-almond  and  a double-flowered  almond  which  suddenly 
])roduced  fruit  closely  resembling  true  peaches.  I have  also  given 
many  cases  of  peach-trees  producing  buds,  which,  when  developed 
into  branches,  have  yielded  nectarines.  We  have  seen  that  no  less 
than  six  named  and  several  unnamed  varieties  of  the  peach  have 
thus  produced  several  varieties  of  nectarine.  I have  shown  that 
it  is  highly  improbable  that  all  these  pciach-trees,  some  of  which 
are  old  varieties,  and  have  been  propagated  by  the  million,  are 
hybrids  from  the  peach  and  nectarine,  and  that  it  is  opposed 
to  all  analogy  to  attribute  the  occasional  production  of  nectarines 


* Since  the  publication  of  the  first 
edition  of  this  work,  I have  found  that 
M.  Carrifere,  Chef  des  Pepinieres  a'l 
Mus.  d'ff/st.  Nat.,  in  his  excellent 
hssay,  ‘ Production  et  Fixation  des 
Vari.tds,  1865,’ has  given  a list  of 
bud-variations  far  more  extensive 


than  mine  ; but  as  these  relate  chiefly 
to  cases  occurring  in  France  1 have 
left  my  list  as  it  stood,  adding 
a few  facts  from  IM.  Carrifere  and 
others.  Any  one  who  wishes  to 
study  the  subject  fully  saould  refti 
to  M.  Carriere’s  Essav'. 


Cn-^K  XI. 


FRUIT. 


899 


on  peach-trees  to  the  direct  action  of  pollen  from  some  neighbonring 
nectarine-tree.  Several  of  the  cases  are  highly  remarkable,  bccanso, 
firstly,  the  frnit  thus  produced  has  sometimes  been  in  part  a 
nectarine  and  in  part  a peach ; secondly,  because  nectarines  tlius 
suddenly  produced  have  reproduced  themselves  by  seed ; and  thirdly, 
because  nectarines  are  produced  from  peach-trees  from  seed  as 
well  as  from  buds.  The  seed  of  the  nectarine,  on  the  other  ha.nd, 
occasionally  produces  peaches ; and  we  have  seen  in  one  instance 
that  a nectarine-tree  yielded  peaches  by  bud-variation.  As  the 
peach  is  certainly  the  oldest  or  primary  variety,  the  production 
of  peaches  from  nectarines,  either  by  seeds  or  buds,  may  perhaps 
be  con.udered  as  a case  of  reversion.  Certain  trees  have  also 
been  described  as  indifferently  bearing  peaches  or  nectarines,  and 
this  may  be  considered  as  bud- variation  carried  to  an  extreme 
degree. 

The  grosse  mignonne  peach  at  Montreuil  produced  "^from  a 
sporting  branch  ” the  grosse  mignonne  tardive,  “ a most  excellent 
variety,”  which  ripens  its  fruit  a fortnight  later  than  the  parent 
tree,  and  in  equally  good.^  This  same  peach  has  likewise  produced 
by  bud- variation  the  early  grosre  mignonne.  Hunt’s  large  tawny 
nectarine  “ originated  from  Hunt's  small  tawny  nectarine,  but  not 
through  seminal  reproduction.”^ 

Flums. — Mr.  Knight  states  that  a tree  of  the  yellow  magnum 
bonum  plum,  forty  years  old,  which  had  . always  borne  ordinary 
Iruit,  produced  a branch  which  yielded  red  magnum  bonums.^ 
Mr.  Eivers,  of  Sawbridgeworth,  informs  me  Man.  1863)  that  a 
single  tree  out  of  400  or  500  trees  of  the  Early  Prolific  plum,  which 
is  a purple  kind,  descended  from  an  old  French  variety  bearing 
purple  fruit,  produced  when  about  ten  years  old  bright  yellow 
plums ; these  differed  in  no  respect  except  colour  from  those  on 
the  other  trees,  but  were  unlike  any  other  known  kind  of  yellow 
plum.® 

Cherry  {Frunus  ceramd). — ^Mr.  Knight  has  recorded  (ibid.)  the 
case  of  a branch  of  a May-Duke  cherry,  which,  though  certainly 
never  grafted,  always  produced  fruit,  ripening  later,  and  more 
oblong  than  the  fruit  on  the  other  branches.  Another  account 
has  been  given  of  two  May-Duke  cherry-trees  in  Scotland,  with 
branches  bearing  oblong  and  very  fine  fruit,  which  invariably 
ripened,  as  in  Knight’s  case,  a fortnight  later  than  the  other  cherries.® 
M.  Carriei’e  gives  (p.  37)  numerous  analogous  cases,  and  one  of  the 
same  tree  bearing  three  kinds  of  fruit. 

Grapes  ( Vitis  vinifera). — The  black  ,or  purple  Frontignan  in 


* ‘Gardener’s  Chron.,*  1854.  p.  821. 

* Lindiey’s  ‘ Gride  to  Orchai'd,’  as 
quoted  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.’  1852.  p. 
821.  F<)r  the  Early  mignonne  peach', 
gee  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1834,  p. 
1251. 


■*  ‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  ii.  p. 
160. 

^ See  also  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron., 
1863,  p.  27. 

“ ‘Gard.  Chror.,’  1852,  p.  821. 


400 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI. 


one  case  produced  during  two  successive  years  v^-ud  no  doubt 
permanently)  spurs  which  bore  white  Frontignan  grapes.  In 
another  case,  on  the  same  footstalk,  the  lower  berries  “ were  well- 
coloured  black  Frontignans;  those  next  the  stalk  were  white, 
with  the  exception  of  one  black  and  one  streaked  berry ; ” and 
altogetlier  there  were  fifteen  black  and  twelve  white  berries  on  the 
same  stalk.  In  another  kind  of  gray)0,  black  and  amber-coloured 
berries  were  protiuced  in  the  same  cluster.^  Count  Odart  describes 
a variety  which  often  bears  on  the  same  stalk  small  round  and 
large  oblong  berries;  though  the  shape  of  the  berry  is  generally 
a fixed  character.®  Here  is  another  striking  case  given  on  the 
excellent  authority  of  M.  Carriere:®  “a  black  Hamburg  grape 
(Frankenthal)  was  cut  down,  and  produced  three  suckers ; one 
of  these  was  layered,  and  after  a time  produced  much  smaller 
berries,  which  always  ripened  at  least  a fortnight  earlier  than 
the  others.  Of  the  remaining  two  suckers,  one  produced  every 
year  fine  grapes,  whilst  the  other,  although  it  set  an  abundance 
of  fruit,  matured  only  a few,  and  these  of  inferior  quality.” 

Gooseberry  {lubes  grossularia). — A remarkable  case  has  been 
described  by  l)r.  Lindley  of  a bush  wdiich  bore  at  the  same  time 
no  less  than  four  kinds  of  berries,  namely,  hairy  and  red, — smooth, 
small  and  red,— green, — and  yellow  tinged  with  buff;  the  two 
latter  kinds  had  a different  flavour  from  the  red  berries,  and  their 
seeds  were  coloured  red.  Three  twigs  on  this  bush  grew  close 
together ; the  first  bore  three  yellow  berries  and  one  red ; the 
second  twig  bore  four  yellow  and  one  red;  and  the  third  four  red 
and  one  yellow.  Mr.  Laxton  also  informs  me  that  he  has  seen 
a Eed  Warrington  gooseberry  bearing  both  red  and  yellow  fruit 
on  the  same  branch. 

Currant  {Itlbes  rubrum). — A bush  purchased  as  the  Champagne, 
which  is  a variety  that  bears  blush-coloured  fruit  intermediate 
between  red  and  white,  produced  during  fourteen  years  on  separate 
branches  and  mingled  on  the  same  branch,  berries  of  the  red,  white, 
and  champagne  kinds.^^  The  suspicion  naturally  arises  that  this 
variety  may  have  originated  from  a cross  between  a red  and  white 
variety,  and  that  the  above  transformation  may  be  accounted  for 
by  reversion  to  both  parent-forms;  but  from  the  foregoing  complex 
case  of  the  gooseberry  this  view  is  doubtful.  In  France,  a branch 
of  a red-currant  bush,  about  ten  years  old,  produced  near  the 
summit  five  white  berries,  and  lower  down,  amongst  the  red  berries, 


^ G ii-dener’s  Ghron.,’  1852,  p.  629  ; 
1856,  p.  64-8;  1864,  p.  986.  Other 
^ases  are  given  by  Braun  ‘ Rejuvene- 
icence,’  in  ‘ Ray  Soc.  Bot.  Mem.,’ 
1856,  p.  314, 

“ ‘ Ampelographie.’&c.,  1849,  p.  71. 
® ‘ Gardeuer’;s  Chronicle,’  1866,  p. 
97  V). 


‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,*  1855,  pp. 
597,  612. 

“ ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,*  1842,  p. 
873  ; 1855,  p.  646.  In  the  ‘Chroni- 
cle,’ p.  876,  Mr.  P.  Mackenzie  states 
that  the  bush  still  continues  to  bear 
the  three  kinds  of  fruit,  ‘‘although 
they  ha,-e  not  been  every  year  alike. 


Chap.  XL 


FT.OWERS. 


401 


one  berry  half  red  and  half  white.'^  Alexander  Braun also  has 
often  seen  branches  on  white  currant-trees  bearing  red  berries. 

Pear  {Pyrus  coramuniP). — Bureau  de  la  Malle  states  that  the 
flowers  on  some  trees  of  an  ancient  variety,  the  doyenne  yah  ux,  were 
destroyed  by  frost : other  flowers  appeared  in  July,  which  produced 
six  pears;  these  exactly  resembled  in  their  skin  and  taste  the 
fruit  of  a distinct  variety,  the  ^rros  doyenne-  Piano,  but  in  shape 
were  like  the  hon-oliretien:  it  was  not  ascertained  whether  this 
new  variety  could  be  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting.  The 
same  author  grafted  a bon-chretkn  on  a quince,  and  it  produced, 
besides  its  proper  fruit,  an  apparently  new  variety,  of  a peculiar 
form  with  thick  and  rough  skin.^^ 

Apple  (Pyrus  maius'). — In  Canada,  a tree  of  the  variety  called 
Pound  Sweet,  produced,^®  between  two  of  its  proper  fruit,  an  apple 
which  was  well  russeted,  small  in  size,  different  in  shape,  and 
with  a short  peduncle.  As  no  russet  apple  grew  anywhere  near, 
this  case  apparently  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  direct  action 
of  foreign  pollen.  M.  Carrim’e  (p.  38)  mentions  an  analogous 
instance.  1 shall  hereafter  give  cases  of  apple-trees  which  regu- 
larly produce  fruit  of  two  kinds,  or  half-and-half  fruit ; these  trees 
are  generally  supposed,  and  probably  with  truth,  to  be  of  crossed 
parentage,  and  that  the  fruit  reverts  to  both  parent-forms. 

Banana  (Musa  sapientium).—^\Y  E.  Schomburgk  states  that  he 
saw  in  St.  Domingo  a r-acerne  on  the  Pig  Banana  which  bore 
towards  the  base  125  fruits  of  the  proper  kind;  and  these  were 
succeeded,  as  is  usual,  higher  up  the  raceme,  by  barren  flowers, 
and  these  by  420  fruits,  ha\ing  a widely  different  appearance,  and 
ripening  earlier  than  the  proper  fruit.  The  abnormal  fruit  closely 
resembled,  except  in  being  smaller,  that  of  the  Musa  chivensis  or 
oavendisliii,  which  has  generally  been  ranked  as  a distinct  species.^® 

Flowees.— Many  cases  have  been  recorded  of  a whole  plant,  or 
single  branch,  or  bud,  suddenly  producing  flowers  different  from 
the  proper  type  in  colour,  form,  size,  doubleness,  or  other  character. 
Half  the  flower,  or  a smaller  segment,  sometimes  changes  colour. 

Camellia. — The  myrtle-leaved  species  (C.  myrtifolia'),  and  two  or 
three  varieties  of  the  common  species,  have  been  kno-wn  to  produce 
hexagonal  and  imperfectly  quadrangular  flowers ; and  the  branches 
producing  such  flowers  have  been  propagated  by  grafting.^^  The 
Pompon  variety  often  bears  ‘^four  distinguishable  kinds  of  flowers, 
— the  pure  white  and  the  red-eyed,  which  appear  promiscuously ; 
the  brindled  pink  and  the  rose-coloured,  which  may  be  kept 


Revue  Horticole,’  quoted  in 
' Gard.  Chronicle,*  1844,  p.  87. 

‘ RejuA'enescence  in  Nature,’  Bot. 
Menu'irs  Ray  Soc.,*  1853,  p.  314. 

‘Comptes  Rendus,*  tom.  xli. 
1855,  ]>.  801.  The  second  case  is 
"ivcr,  on  the  authority  of  Gaudichaud, 

27 


ibid.,  tom.  xxxiv.,  1852,  p.  748. 

. This  case  is  given  in  the  ‘ Gai’d. 
Chronicle,’  1867,  p.  403. 

‘Journal  of  • Proc.  I, inn.  Sou., 
vol.  ii.  Botany,  p.  131. 

‘ Gard.  Chronic.e,’  1847,  p.  207. 


m 


BUD -VARIATION. 


Chap.  Xi. 


“ separate  with  tolerable  certainty  by  grafting  from  the  branches 
“ thiit  bear  them.”  A branch,  also,  on  an  old  tree  of  the  ro'se-coloiired 
variety  has  been  seen  to  “ revert  to  the  pure  wliite  colour,  an 
“ occurrence  less  common  than  the  departure  from  it.” 

Oraioegus  oxyarantha. — A dark  pink  hawthorn  has  been  known  to 
throw  out  a single  tuft  of  pure  white  blossoms ; and  Mr.  A. 
Clapham,  nurseryman,  of  Bedford,  informs  me  that  his  father  had  a 
deep  crimson  thorn  grafted  on  a white  thorn,  which  during  several 
years,  always  bore,  ingli  above  the  graft,  bunches  of  white,  pink  and 
deep  crimson  flowers. 

Azalea  indica  is  well  known  often  to  produce  new  varieties  by 
buds.  I have  myself  seen  several  cases.  A plant  of  Azalea  indica 
variegaia  has  been  exhibited  bearing  a truss  of  flowers  of  A.  ind. 
gleddaatsii  “ as  true  as  could  possibly  be  produced,  thus  evidencing 
the  origin  of  that  fine  variety.”  On  another  plant  of  A.  ind.  varie- 
gata  a perfect  flower  of  A.  ind.  Jateritia  was  produced;  so  that  both 
ghdstanesii  and  latevitia  no  doubt  originally  appeared  as  sporting 
branches  of  A.  ind.  variegataA^ 

Hibiscus  {Paritium  tricuspis'). — A seedling  of  this  plant,  when  some 
years  old,  produced,  at  Saharunpore,^^  some  branches  which  bore 
leaves  and  flowers  widely  different  from  the  normal  form.”  “ The 
abnormal  leaf  is  much  less  divided,  and  not  acuminated.  The 
petals  are  considerably  larger,  and  quite  entire.  There  is  also  in 
the  fresh  state  a conspicuous,  large,  oblong  gland,  full  of  a viscid 
secretion,  on  the  back  of  each  of  the  calycine  segments.”  Dr.  King, 
who  subsequently  had  charge  of  these  Gardens,  informs  me  that  a 
tree  of  Paritium  tricuspis  (probably  the  very  same  plant)  growing 
there,  had  a branch  buried  in  the  ground,  apparently  by  accident ; 
and  this  branch  changed  its  character  wonderfully,  growing  like  a 
bush,  and  producing  flowers  and  leaves,  resembling  in  shape  those 
of  another  species,  viz.,  P.  tiliaceum.  A small  branch  springing 
from  this  bush  near  the  ground,  reverted  to  the  parent-form. 
Both  f()]’ms  were  extensively  propagated  during  several  years  by 
cuttings  and  kept  perfectly  true. 

Althcea  rosea. — A double  yellow  Hollyhock  suddenly  turned  one 
year  into  a pure  white  single  kind;  subsequently  a branch  bearing 
the  original  double  yellow  flowers  reappeared  in  the  midst  of  the 
branches  of  the  single  white  kind.^^ 

Pelargonium. — These  highly  cultivated  plants  seem  eminently 
liable  to  bud-variation.  I will  give  only  a few  well-marked  cases. 
Gartiior  has  seen''^^  a plant  of  P.  zonede  with  a branch  having  white 


18  Herbert,  ‘ Amaryllidace^,’  1838, 
p.  369. 

19  ‘ Gardener’s  Chronicle,’  1843,  p. 
391. 

20  Exhibited  at  Hort.  Soc.,  London. 
Report  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1844, 
p.  337. 


21  Mr.  W.  Bell,  Bot.  Soc.  of  Edin- 
burgh, May,  1863. 

22  ‘ Revue  Horticole,’  quoted  in 
‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1845,  p.  475. 

23  ‘ Bastarderzeugung,’  1849,  s. 
76. 


Chap.  XL 


FLOV/EKS. 


408 


edges,  which  remained  constant  for  years,  and  bore  flowers  of  a 
deeper  red  than  usual.  Generally  speahing,  such  branches  present 
little  or  no  difference  in  their  flowers : thus  a writer  pinched  ofl 
the  leading  shoot  of  a seedling  P.  zonale,  and  it  threw  out  three 
branches,  which  differed  in  the  size  and  colour  of  their  leaves  and 
stems;  but  on  all  three  branches  ‘Ghe  flowers  were  identical,” 
except  in  being  largest  in  the  green-stemmed  variety,  and  smallest 
in  that  with  variegated  foliage : these  three  varieties  were  sub- 
sequently propagated  and  distributed.  Many  branches,  and  some 
whole  plants,  of  a variety  called  compactum,  which  bears  orange- 
scarlet  flowers,  have  been  seen  to  produce  pink  flowers.^^  Hill’s 
Hector,  which  is  a pale  red  variety,  produced  a branch  with  lilac 
flowers,  and  some  trusses  with  both  red  and  lilac  flowers.  This 
apparently  is  a case  of  reversion,  for  Hill’s  Hector  was  a seedling 
from  a lilac  variety.^®  Here  is  a better  case  of  reversion : a variety 
produced  from  a complicated  cross,  after  having  been  propagated 
for  five  generations  by  seed,  yielded  by  bud-variation  three  very 
distinct  varieties  which  were  undistinguishable  from  plants, 
“known  to  have  been  at  some  time  ancestors  of  the  plant  in 
question.”  Of  all  Pelargoniums,  Eollisson’s  Unique  seems  to  be 
the  most  sportive ; its  origin  is  not  positively  known,  but  is  believed 
to  be  from  a cross.  Mr.  Salter,  of  Hammersmith,  states  that  he 
has  himself  known  this  purple  variety  to  produce  the  lilac,  the 
rose-crimson  or  conspicuum,  and  the  red  or  coccineum  varieties;  the 
latter  has  also  produced  the  rose  d'amour ; so  that  altogether  four 
varieties  have  originated  by  bud  variation  from  Eollisson’s  Unique. 
Mr.  Salter  remarks  that  these  four  varieties  “may  now  be  con- 
“ sidered  as  fixed,  although  they  occasionally  produce  flowers  of 
“ the  original  colour.  This  year  coccineum  has  pushed  flowers  of 
“ three  different  colours,  red,  rose,  and  lilac,  upon  the  same  truss, 
“ and  upon  other  trusses  are  flowers  half  red  and  half  lilac.” 
Besides  these  four  varieties,  two  other  scarlet  Uniques  are  known  to 
exist,  both  of  which  occasionally  produce  lilac  flowers  identical 
with  Eollisson’s  Unique ; but  one  at  least  of  these  did  not  arise 
through  bud-variation,  but  is  believmd  to  be  a seedling  from  Eollis- 
son’s Unique.”  There  are,  also,  in  the  trade  two  other  slightly 
different  varieties,  of  unknown  origin,  of  Eollisson’s  Unique ; so 
that  altogether  we  have  a curiously  complex  case  of  variation  both 
by  buds  and  seeds.®^  Here  is  a still  more  complex  case  : M.  Eafarin 


‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  1861, 
p 336. 

W.  P.  Ayres,  in  ‘ Gardener’s 
^ra'on.,’  1842,  p.  791. 

W.  P.  Ayres,  ibid. 

Dr.  Maxwell  Masters,  ‘ Pop. 
Science  Review,’  July,  1872,  p.  250. 

‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’  1861,  p 

968. 

28  Ibid , 1861,  p.  945. 


8®  W.  Paul,  in  ‘ Gardener’s  Chron.,’ 
1861,  p.  968. 

Ibid.,  p.  945. 

*2  For  other  cases  of  bud-variation 
in  this  same  variety,  see  ‘ Gardener’s 
Chron.,’  1861,  pp.  578,  600,  925.  For 
other  distinct’  cases  of  bud-variation 
in  the  genus  Pelargonium,  see  ‘Cot- 
tage Gardener,’  1860.  p.  194. 


404 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI 


states  that  a pale  rose-coloured  variety  produced  a branch  bearing 
deep  red  flowers.  “ Cuttings  were  taken  from  this  ‘ sport,’  from 
“ which  20  plants  were  raised,  which  flowered  in  1867,  when  it  was 
“ found  that  scarcely  two  were  alike.”  Some  resembled  the  parent- 
form,  some  resembled  the  sport,  some  bore  both  kinds  of  flowers ; 
and  even  some  of  the  petals  on  the  same  flower  were  rose-coloured 
and  others  red.^^  An  English  wild  plant,  the  Geranium  jpraiense, 
when  cultivated  in  a garden,  has  been  seen  to  produce  on  the  same 
plant  both  blue  and  white,  and  striped  blue  and  white  flowers.^^ 
Chrysanthemum. — This  plant  fr-equently  sports,  both  by  its  lateral 
branches  and  occasionally  by  suckers.  A seedling  raised  by 
Mr,  Salter  has  produced  by  bud-variation  six  distinct  sorts,  five 
different  in  colour  and  one  in  foliage,  all  of  which  are  now  fixed.®® 
A variety  called  cedo  nulli  bears  small  yellow  flowers,  but  habitu- 
ally produces  branches  with  white  flowers;  and  a specimen  was 
exhibited,  which  Prof.  T.  Dyer  saw,  before  the  Horticultural  Society. 
The  varieties  which  were  first  introduced  from  China  wx're  so 
excessively  variable,  that  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  tell  which 
was  the  original  colour  of  the  variety,  and  which  w^as  the  sport.” 
The  same  plant  would  produce  one  year  only  buff-coloured,  and 
next  year  only  rose-coloured  flowers;  and  then  would  change  again, 
or  produce  at  the  same  time  flowers  of  both  colours.  These  &uc- 
tuating  varieties  are  now  ail  lost,  and,  when  a branch  sports  into  a 
new  variety,  it  can  generally  be  propagated  and  kept  true ; but,  as 
Mr,  Salter  remarks,  every  sport  should  be  thoroughly  tested  in 
“ different  soils  before  it  can  be  really  considered  as  fixed,  as  many 
‘‘  have  been  known  to  run  back  when  planted  in  rich  compost ; but 
‘‘  when  sufficient  care  and  time  are  expended  in  proving,  there  will 
exist  little  danger  of  subsequent  disappointment.”  Mr.  Salter 
informs  me  that  with  all  the  varieties  the  commonest  kind  of  bud- 
variation  is  the  production  of  yellow  flowers,  and,  as  this  is  the 
primordial  colour,  these  cases  may  be  attributed  to  reversion. 
Mr.  Salter  has  given  me  a list  of  seven  differently  coloured  chrysan- 
themums, which  have  all  produced  branches  with  yellow  flowers ; 
but  three  of  them  have  also  sported  into  other  colours.  With  any 
change  of  colour  in  the  flower,  the  foliage  generally  changes  in  a 
corresponding  manner  in  lightness  or  darkness. 

Another  Composi tons  plant,  namely,  Gent auriacy anus,  vflie.w  culti- 
vated in  a garden,  not  unfrequently  produces  on  the  same  root  flowers 
of  four  different  colours,  viz  , blue,  white,  dark-purple,  and  parti- 
coloured.®® The  flowers  of  Anthemis  also  vary  on  the  same  ])lant,®’ 
Roses. — Many  varieties  of  the  Eose  are  known  or  are  believed  to 


Dr.  Maxwell  Masters,  ‘ Pop. 
Science  Review,’  July,  1872,  p.  254. 

Rev.  W.  T.  Bree,  in  Loudon’s 
‘ Gard.  Mag.,’  vol.  viii.,  1832,  p.  93. 

‘The  Chi’ysanthemum  : its  His- 
tory and  Cibture,’by  1.  Salter,  1865, 


p.  41,  &c. 

Bree,  in  Loudon’s  ‘ Garl.  IMag., 
vol.  viii.,  1832,  p.  93. 

Bronn,  ‘ Geschi  hte  der  Natur, 
B.  ii.  s.  123. 


rHAP,  XI. 


FLOWERS. 


405 


have  originated  by  bud- variation,^®  The  common  double  moss-rose 
was  imported  into  'England  from  Italy  about  the  year  1733.®®  Its 
origin  is  unknown,  but  from  analogy  it  probably  arose  from  the 
Provence  rose  {H  centifoUd)  by  bud-variation  ; for  the  branches  of 
the  common  moss-rose  have  several  times  been  known  to  produce 
Provence  roses,  wholly  or  partially  destitute  of  moss : I have  seen 
one  such  instance,  and  several  others  have  been  recorded.^® 
Mr.  Rivers  also  informs  me  that  he  raised  two  or  three  roses  of 
the  Provence  class  from  seed  of  the  old  single  moss-rose ; and  this 
latter  kind  was  produced  in  1807  by  bud-variation  from  the  com- 
mon moss-rose.  The  white  moss-rose  was  also  produced  in  1788 
by  an  offset  from  the  common  red  moss-rose  : it  was  at  first  pale 
blush-coloured,  but  became  w^hite  by  continued  budding.  On 
cutting  down  the  shoots  which  had  produced  this  white  moss-rose, 
two  weak  shoots  were -thrown  up,  and  buds  from  these  yielded  the 
beautiful  striped  moss-rose.  The  common  moss-rose  has  yielded 
by  bud-variation,  besides  the  old  single  red  moss-rose,  the  old 
ficarlet  semi -double  moss-rose,  and  the  sage-leaf  moss-rose,  which 
“ has  a delicate  shell-like  form,  and  is  of  a beautiful  blush  colour ; 
it  is  now  (1852)  nearly  extinct.'”'^®  A white  moss-rose  has  been 
seen  to  bear  a flow^er  half  white  and  half  pink.^®  Although  several 
moss-roses  have  thus  certainly  arisen  by  bud- variation,  the  greater 
number  probably  owe  their  origin  to  seed  of  moss-roses  For 
Mr.  Eivers  informs  me  that  his  seedlings  from  the  old  single  moss- 
rose  almost  always  produced  moss-roses ; and  the  old  single  moss-rose 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  product  by  bud- variation  of  the  double 
moss-rose  originally  imported  from  Italy.  That  the  original  moss- 
rose  was  the  product  of  bud-variation  is  probable,  from  the  facts 
above  given  and  from  the  de  Meaux  moss-rose  (also  a variety  of 
R.  centifoUd)  having  appeared  as  a sporting  branch  on  the 
common  rose  de  Meaux.  Prof.  Caspary  has  carefully  described'^® 
the  case  of  a six-year-old  white  moss-rose,  which  sent  up  several 
suckers,  one  of  which  was  thorny,  and  produced  red  flowers, 
destitute  of  moss,  exactly  like  those  of  the  Provence  rose  {R.  centi- 
folia) : another  shoot  bore  both  kinds  of  flowers,  and  in  addition 
longitudinally  striped  flowers.  As  this  wdiite  moss-rose  had  been 
grafted  on  the  Provence  rose.  Prof.  Caspary  attributes  the  above 


38  T.  Rivers,  ‘Rose  Amateur’s 
Guide,’  1837,  p.  4. 

39  Mr.  Shailer,  quoted  in  ^ Gar- 
dener’s Chron.,’  1848,  p.  759. 

40  ‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  iv. 
1822,  p.  137;  ‘Gard.  Chron.,’  1842, 
p.  422. 

41  See  also  Loudon’s  ‘ Arboretum,’ 
vol.  ii.  p.  780. 

42  All  these  statements  on  the 
origin  of  the  several  varieties  of  the 
moss-rose  are  given  on  the  authority 


of  Mr.  Shailer,  who,  together  with 
his  father,  was  concerned  in  their 
original  propagation.  See  ‘ Gard. 
Chron.,’  1852,  p.  759. 

43  ‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1845,  p.  564. 

44  ‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  ii.  p, 
242. 

45‘Schriften  der  Phys.  Oekon. 
Gesell.  zu  Konigsberg,’  Feb.  3,  1865, 
8.  4.  See  also  Dr.  Caspary’s  paper  in 
‘ Transactions  of  the  Hort.  Congress 
of  Amsterdam,’  1865. 


406 


BUD-YAllIATION. 


Chap  XI 


clianges  to  the  influence  of  the  stock;  but  from  the  facts  already 
given,  and  from  others  to  be  given,  bud- variation,  with  reversion, 
is  probably  a sufficient  explanation. 

Many  other  instances  could  be  added  of  roses  varying  by  buds. 
The  while  Provence  rose  apparently  originated  in  this  way.^°  M. 
Carriere  states  (p.  36)  that  he  himself  knows  of  five  varieties  thus 
produced  by  the  Baronne  Prevost.  The  double  and  highly-coloured 
Belladonna  rose  has  produced  by  suckers  both  semi-double  and 
almost  single  white  roses;  whilst  suckers  from  one  of  these  semi- 
double white  roses  reverted  to  perfectly  characterised  Belladonnas. 
In  St.  Domingo,  varieties  of  the  China  rose  propagated  by  cuttings 
often  revert  after  a year  or  two  into  the  old  China  rose.**^  Many 
cases  have  been  recorded  of  roses  suddenly  becoming  striped  or 
changing  their  character  by  segments  : some  plants  of  the  Comtesse 
de  Chabrillant,  which  is  properly  rose-coloured,  were  exhibited  in 
1862,^^  with  crimson  flakes  on  a rose  ground.  I have  seen  the 
Beauty  of  Billiard  with  a quarter  and  with  half  the  flower  almost 
white.  The  Austrian  bramble  {li.  lutea)  not  rarely®®  produces 
branches  with  pure  yellow  flowers;  and  Prof.  Henslow  has  seen 
exactly  half  the  flower  of  a pure  yellow,  and  I have  seen  narrow 
yellow  streaks  on  a single  petal,  of  which  the  rest  was  of  the  usual 
copper  colour. 

The  following  cases  are  highly  remarkable.  Mr.  Eivers,  as  I am 
informed  by  him,  possessed  a new  French  rose  with  delicate  smooth 
shoots,  pale  glaucous-green  leaves,  and  semi-double  pale  flesh-coloured 
flowers  striped  with  dark  red ; and  on  branches  thus  characterised 
there  suddenly  appeared  in  more  than  one  instance,  the  famous  old 
rose  called  the  Baronne  Prevost,  with  its  stout  thorny  shoots,  and 
immense,  uniformly  and  richly  coloured  double  flowers;  eo  that  in 
this  case  the  shoots,  leaves,  and  flowers,  all  at  once  chaoged  their 
character  by  bud-variation.  According  to  M.  Verlot,®^  a variety 
called  Ro&a  i^annabifoUa,  which  has  peculiarly  shaped  leaflets,  and 
differs  from  every  member  of  the  family  in  the  leaves  being  opposite 
instead  of  alternate,  suddenly  appeared  on  a plant  of  li.  alba  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Luxembourg.  Lastly,  “ a running  shoot  ” was  observed 
by  Mr.  H.  Curtis®^  on  the  old  Aimee  Vibert  Noisette,  and  he  budded  it 
on  Celine;  thus  a climbing  Aimee  Yibert  was  first  produced  and 
afterwards  propagated. 

Diantlius. — It  is  quite  common  with  the  Sweet  "William  (Z). 
barbatus)  to  see  differently  coloured  flowers  on  the  same  root;  and  I 
have  observed  on  the  same  truss  four  differently  coloured  and 
shaded  flowers.  Carnations  and  pinks  (D.  caryophyllus,  &c.)  occa- 


‘ Gard.  Chron.,*  1852,  p.  759. 

4’  ‘ transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  ii.  p. 
242 

4®  Sir  R.  Schomburgk,  ‘ Free. 
Lina.  Snc.  Bot.,’  vol.  ii.  p.  132. 

46  ‘GarJ.  Cnron.,’  1862.  p.  619. 


Hopkirk’s  ‘ Flora  Anomala,’  167. 
' Sur  la  Production  ot  la  Fixation 
dcs  Var  etes,’  1865.  p.  4. 

'Journal  of  Horticulture,’  March. 
1865,  p.  233. 


Chap.  X[. 


FLOWEES. 


407 


sionally  vary  by  layers;  and  some  kinds  are  so  little  certain  in 
character  that  they  are  called  by  floriculturists  “catch-flowers.”®" 
Mr.  Dickson  has  ably  discussed  the  “ running  ” of  particoloured  or 
striped  carnations,  and  says  it  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the 
compost  in  which  they  are  grown:  “layers  from  the  same  clean 
“ flower  would  come  part  of  them  clean  and  part  foul,  even  when 
“ subjected  to  precisely  the  same  treatment;  and  frequently  one 
“ flower  alone  appears  influenced  by  the  taint,  the  remainder  coming 
“ perfectly  clean.”  This  running  of  the  parti-coloured  flowers 
apparently  is  a case  of  reversion  by  buds  to  the  original  uniform 
tint  of  the  species. 

I will  briefly  mention  some  other  cases  of  bud- variation  to  show 
how  many  plants  belonging  to  many  orders  have  varied  in  their 
flowers;  and  many  others  might  be  added.  I have  seen  on  a snap- 
dragon (^Antirrhinum  majus)  white,  pink,  and  striped  flowers  on 
the  same  plant,  and  branches  with  striped  flowers  on  a red-coloured 
variety.  On  a double  stock  (Mathiola  incana)  I have  seen  a branch 
bearing  single  flowers;  and  on  a dingy-purple  double  variety  of 
the  wall-flower  (Chtiranthus  cheiri),  a branch  which  had  reverted  to 
the  ordinary  copper  colour.  On  other  branches  of  the  same  plant, 
some  flowers  were  exactly  divided  across  the  middle,  one  half  being- 
purple  and  the  other  coppery;  but  some  of  the  smaller  petals 
towards  the  centre  of  these  same  flowers  were  purple  longitudinally 
streaked  with  coppery  colour,  or  coppery  streaked  with  purple. 
A Cyclamen  ®®  has  been  observed  to  bear  white  and  pink  flowers  of 
two  forms,  the  one  resembling  the  Persicum  strain,  and  the  other 
the  Coum  strain.  Oenothera  biennis  has  been  seen®®  bearing  flowers 
of  three  different  colours.  The  hybrid  Gladiolus  col oilii  occasionally 
bears  uniformly  coloured  flowers,  and  one  case  is  recorded  of  all 
the  flowers  on  a plant  thus  changing  colour.  A Fuchsia  has  been 
seen  bearing  two  kinds  of  flowers.  Mirabilis  jalapa  is  eminently 
sportive,  sometimes  bearing  on  the  same  root  pure  red,  yellow,  and 
white  flowers,  and  others  striped  with  various  combinations  of 
these  three  colours.®®  The  plants  of  the  Mirabilis,  which  bear 
such  extraordinarily  variable  flowers  in  most,  probably  in  all,  cases, 
owe  their  origin,  as  shown  by  Prof.  Lecoq,  to  crosses  between 
differently  coloured  varieties. 

Leaves  and  Shoots. — Changes,  through  bud-variation,  in  fruits  and 
flowers  havm  hitherto  been  treated  of ; incidentally  some  remarkable 
modiflcations  in  the  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  rose  and  Paritium,  and 


®®*‘Gard.  Chron.,’  1843,  p.  135. 
Joid.,  1842,  p.  55. 

• Gard.  Chron.,’  1867,  p.  235, 
Gartuor,  ‘ Ba^^tarderzeugung,’  s. 

365. 

Mr.  D.  Beaton,  in  ‘ Cottage  G.;r- 
dener,’  1860,  p.  250. 


‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1850,  p 536. 

Braun,  ‘ Kay  Soc.  Bot.  Mem. 
1853,  p.  315;  Hopkirk’s  ‘Flora  Ano 
mala,’  p.  164 ; Lecoq,  ‘ Geograph 
Bot.  de  i’Europe,’  tom.  iii.,  1854-,  p 
405  ; and  ‘ De  la  Fecondation,*  1862 
p.  303. 


408 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI. 


in  a lesser  degree  in  the  foliage  of  the  Pe'argoninra  and  Chrysan- 
themum, have  been  noticed.  1 will  now  add  a few  more  cases  of 
variation  in  leaf-buds.  Verlot°“  states  that  on  Aralia  trifoUata, 
which  properly  has  leaves  with  three  leaflets,  branches  frequently 
appear  bearing  simple  leaves  of  various  forms;  these  can  be  propa- 
gated by  buds  or  by  grafting,  and  have  given  rise,  as  he  states,  to 
several  nominal  species. 

With  respect  to  trees,  the  history  of  but  few  of  the  many  varieties 
with  curious  or  ornamental  foliage  is  known ; but  several  probably 
have  originated  by  bud- variation.  Here  is  one  case : — An  old  ash- 
tree  {l^'raxinus  excelsior)  in  the  grounds  of  Necton,  as  Mr.  Mason 
states,  “ for  many  years  has  had  one  bough  of  a totally  different 
character  to  the  rest  of  the  tree,  or  of  any  other  ash-tree  which  I 
have  seen;  being  short-jointed  and  densely  covered  with  foliage.” 
It  was  ascertained,  that  this  variety  could  be  propagated  by 
grafts.®^  The  varieties  of  some  trees  with  cut  leaves,  as  the  oak- 
leaved laburnum,  the  parsley-leaved  vine,  and  especially  the  fern- 
leaved beech,  are  apt  to  revert  by  buds  to  the  common  forms.®^ 
The  fern-like  leaves  of  the  beech  sometimes  revert  only  partially, 
and  the  branches  display  here  and  there  sprouts  bearing  common 
leaves,  fern-like,  and  variously  shaped  leaves.  Such  cases  differ 
but  little  from  the  so-called  heterophyllus  varieties,  in  which  the 
tree  habitually  bears  leaves  of  various  forms;  but  it  is  probable 
that  most  heterophyllous  trees  have  originated  as  seedlings.  There 
is  a sub- variety  of  the  weeping  willow  with  haves  rolled  up  into 
a spiral  coil ; and  Mr.  Masters  states  that  a tree  of  this  kind  kept 
true  in  his  garden  for  twenty -five  years,  and  then  threw  out  a single 
upright  shoot  bearing  flat  leaves.®^ 

I have  often  noticed  single  twigs  and  branches  on  beech  and 
other  trees  with  their  leaves  fully  expanded  before  those  on  the 
other  branches  had  opened;  and  as  there  was  nothing  in  their 
exposure  or  char.acter  to  account  for  this  difference,  I presume  that 
they  had  appeared  as  bud-variations,  like  the  early  and  late  fruit- 
maturing varieties  of  the  iDeach  and  nectarioe. 

Cryptogamic  plants  are  liable  to  bud-variation,  for  fronds  on 
the  same  fern  often  display  remarkable  deviations  of  structure. 
Spores,  which  are  of  the  nature  of  buds,  taken  from  such  abnormal 
fronds,  reproduce,  with  remarkable  fidelity,  the  same  variety,  after 
passing  through  the  sexual  stage.®^ 

With  respect  to  colour,  leaves  often  become  by  bud-variation 
zoned,  blotched,  or  spotted  with  white,  yellow,  and  red;  and  this 


‘Des  Varietes,’  1865,  p.  5. 

W.  Mason,  in  ‘ Gard.  Chron.,* 
18+3,  p.  878. 

Braun,  ‘ Ray  Soc.  But. 
Mem  ,’  1853,  p.  315  ; ‘ Gard.  Chron  , 
i8+l,  p.  329. 

Dr.  M.  T.  Masters,  ‘ Royal  Insti- 


tution Lecture,’  March  16,  1860. 

See  Mr.  W.  K.  Bridgman’s  curious 
paper  in  ‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Hist.,’  December,  1861  ; also  Mr.  J. 
Scott,  ‘ Bot  Soc.  Ldinburgh,’  June  12, 
1862. 


Chap.  XI. 


LEAVES  AND  SHOOTS. 


409 


occasionally  occurs  even  with  plants  in  a state  of  nature.  Variega- 
tion, ‘however,  appears  still  more  frequently  in  plants  produced 
from  seed ; even  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  being  thus  atfected.^® 
There  have  been  endless  disputes  whether  variegation  should  be 
considered  as  a disease.  In  a future  chapter  we  shall  see  that  it  is 
much  influenced,  both  in  the  case  of  seedlings  and  of  mature  plants, 
by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Plants  which  have  become  variegated  as 
seedlings,  generally  transmit  their  character  by  seed  to  a large 
proportion  of  their  progeny ; and  Mr.  Salter  has  given  me  a list  of 
eight  genera  in  which  this  occurred.^®  Sir  F.  Pollock  has  given  me 
more  precise  information : he  sowed  seed  from  a variegated  plant 
of  Ballota  nigra  which  was  found  grovdng  wild,  and  thirty  per 
cent,  of  the  seedlings  were  variegated ; seed  from  these  latter  being 
sown,  sixty  per  cent,  came  up  variegated.  When  branches  become 
variegated  by  bud- variation,  and  the  variety  is  attempted  to  be 
propagated  by  seed,  the  seedlings  are  rarely  variegated  : Mr.  Salter 
found  this  to  be  the  case  with  plants  belonging  to  eleven  genera, 
in  which  the  greater  number  of  the  seedlings  proved  to  be  green- 
leaved ; yet  a few  were  slightly  variegated,  or  were  quite  white,  but 
none  were  worth  keeping.  Variegated  plants,  whether  originally 
produced  from  seeds  or  buds,  can  generally  be  propagated  by 
budding,  grafting,  &c. ; but  all  are  apt  to  revert  by  bud-variation 
to  their  ordinary  foliage.  This  tendency,  however,  differs  much  i]i 
the  varieties  of  even  the  same  species ; for  instance,  the  golden- 
striped  variety  of  Euonymus  japonicus  “ is  very  liable  to  run  back 
to  the  green-leaved,  while  the  silver-striped  variety  hardly  ever 
changes.”®^  I have  seen  a variety  of  the  holly,  with  its  leaves 
having  a central  yellow  patch,  which  had  everywhere  partially 
reverted  to  the  ordinary  foliage,  so  that  on  the  same  small  branch 
there  were  many  twigs  of  both  kinds.  In  the  j)elargonium,  and  in 
some  other  plants,  variegation  is  generally  accompanied  by  some 
degree  of  dwarfing,  as  is  well  exemplified  in  the  “ Dandy  ” pelargo- 
nium. When  such  dwarf  varieties  sport  back  by  buds  or  suckers 
to  the  ordinary  foliage,  the  dwarfed  stature  still  remains,®®  It  is 
remarkable  that  plants  propagated  from  branches  which  have 
reverted  from  variegated  to  plain  leaves  ®®  do  not  always  (or  never, 
as  one  observer  asserts)  perfectly  resemble  the  original  plain-leaved 
plant  from  which  the  variegated  branch  arose : it  seems  that  a 
plant,  in  passing  by  bud- variation  from  plain  leaves  to  variegated, 
and  back  again  from  variegated  to  plain,  is  generally  in  some  degree 
affected  so  as  to  assume  a slightly  different  aspect. 

Bud-variation  by  Suckers,  Tubers,  and  Bulbs. — All  the  cases 
hitherto  given  of  bud-variation  in  fruits,  flowers,  leaves,  and  shoots, 
have  been  confined  to  buds  on  the  stems  or  branches,  with  the 


‘ Journal  of  Horticulture,’  1861,  ‘ Gard.  Chron.,*  1844,  p.  86. 

p.  336  ; Verlot,  ‘Des  Varietes.’ p.  76.  Ibid.,  1861,  p.  963. 

5!c?<?  also  Verlot,  ‘ Des  Varietes,’ p.  Ibid.,  1861,  p.  433;  ‘Cottage 

'’4.  Gardener.’  1860,  p.  2. 


410 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI. 


exception  of  a few  cases  incidentally  noticed  of  varying  snekers  in 
the  rose,  pelargoniuiH,  and  chrysanthemum.  I will  now  give  a few 
instances  of  variation  in  subterranean  buds,  that  is,  by  suckers, 
tubers,  ami  bulbs;  not  that  there  is  any  essential  difterence  between 
buds  above  and  beneath  the  ground.  Mr.  Salter  informs  me  that 
two  variegated  varieties  of  Phlox  originated  as  suckers;  but  I 
should  not  have  thought  these  worth  mentioning,  had  not  Mr.  Salter 
found,  after  repeated  trials,  that  he  could  not  propagate  them  by 
“ root-joints,”  whereas,  the  variegated  Tussilago  farfara  can  thus  be 
safely  propagated but  this  latter  plant  may  have  originated  as  a 
variegated  seedling,  which  would  account  for  its  greater  fixedness 
of  character.  The  Barberry  (Berherin  vulgaris)  offers  an  analogous 
case ; there  is  a well-known  variety  with  seedless  fruit,  which  can 
be  propagated  by  cuttings  or  layers ; but  suckers  always  revert  to 
the  common  form,  which  produces  fruit  containing  seeds.^^  My 
father  repeatedly  tried  this  experiment,  and  always  with  the 
same  result.  I may  here  mention  that  maize  and  wheat  some- 
times produce  new  varieties  from  the  stock  or  root,  as  does  the 
sugar- cane.'^^ 

Turning  now  to  tubers : in  the  common  Potato  {Solarium  tuherosum) 
a single  bud  or  eye  sometimes  varies  and  produces  a new  variety ; 
or,  occasionally,  and  this  is  a much  more  remarkable  circumstance, 
all  the  eyes  in  a tuber  vary  in  the  same  manner  and  at  the  same 
time,  so  that  the  whole  tuber  assumes  a new  character.  For  instance, 
a single  eye  in  a tuber  of  the  old  Forty-fold  pot j.to,  which  is  a purple 
variety,  was  observed''^  to  become  white;  this  eye  was  cut  out  and 
planted  separately,  and  the  kind  has  since  been  largely  propagated. 
Kemp's  potato  is  properly  white,  but  a plant  in  Lancashire  produced 
two  tubers  which  were  red,  and  tw^o  which  were  white;  the  red 


M.  Lemoine  (quoted  iu  ‘ Gai’d. 
Chron.,’  1867,  p.  74)  has  lately  ob- 
served that  the  Symphytum  with 
variegated  leaves  cannot  be  propa- 
gated by  diviAon  of  the  roots.  He 
also  foun  t that  out  of  500  plants  of  a 
Phlox  with  striped  flowers,  which 
had  been  propagated  by  root-division, 
only  seven  or  eight  produced  striped 
flowers.  See  also,  on  striped  Pe- 
largoniums, ‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1867, 

p.  1000. 

Anderson’s  ‘ Recreations  in  Agri- 
culture,’ vol.  V.  p.  152. 

For  wheat,  see  ‘ Improvement  of 
the  Cereals,’  by  P.  Shirreff,  1873,  p. 
47.  For  maize  and  sugar-cane, 
Carriere,  ibid.,  ]ip.  40,  42.  With 
respect  to  the  sugar-cane,  Mr.  J. 
Caldwell,  of  Mauritius,  says  (‘  Gar- 
dcufcr’.s  Chronicle,’  1874,  p.  316)  the 


Ribbon  cane  has  here  “ sported  into  a 
perfectly  green  cane  and  a perfectly  red 
cane  from  the  same  head.  I verified  this 
myself,  and  saw  at  least  200  instances 
in  the  same  plantation,  and  the  fact 
has  completely  upset  all  our  pre- 
conceived ideas  of  the  difference  ot 
colour  being  permanent.  The  con- 
version of  a striped  cane  into  a 
green  cane  was  not  uncommon,  but 
the  change  into  a red  cane  univer- 
sally disbelieved,  and  that  both  e^nts 
should  occur  in  the  same  plant 
incredible.  I find,  however,  in 
Fleischman’s  ‘ Report  on  Sugar  Culti- 
vation in  Louisiana  for  1818,  by  the 
American  Patent  Office,  the  circum- 
stance is  mentioned,  but  he  says  he 
never  saw  it  himself.” 

‘Gard.  Chron.,’  1857,  p.  662. 


(.3hap,  XL 


BY  SUCKEKS,  TUBERS,  AND  BULBS. 


411 


kind  was  propagated  in  tiie  nsual  manner  by  eyes,  and  kept  true 
to  its  new  colour,  and,  being  found  a more  productive  variety, 
soon  became  widely  known  under  the  name  ot  Tuyloi  's  Forty-foliV^ 
The  old  Forty-fold  potato,  as  already  stated,  is  a purple  variety; 
but  a plant  long  cultivated  on  the  same  ground  produced,  not,  as  in 
the  case  above  given,  a single  white  eye,  but  a whole  white  tuber, 
which  has  since  been  propagated  and  keeps  trueJ^  Several  cases 
have  been  recorded  of  large  portions  of  whole  rows  of  potatoes 
slightly  changing  their  character 

Dahlias  propagated  by  tubers  under  the  hot  climate  of  St. 
Domingo  vary  much;  Sir  E.  Schomburgk  gives  the  case  of  the 

Butterfly  variety,”  which  the  second  year  produced  on  the  same 
plant  double  and  single  flowers;  here  white  petals  edged  with 
“maroon;  there  of  a uniform  deep  maroon.”'^  Mr.  Bree  also 
mentions  a plant  “ which  bore  two  different  kinds  of  self-coloured 
“ flowers,  as  well  as  a third  kind  which  partook  of  both  colours 
“ beautifully  intermixed.” Another  case  is  described  of  a dahlia 
with  purple  flowers  which  bore  a white  flower  streaked  with 
purple.'® 

Considering  how  long  and  extensively  many  Bulbous  plants 
have  been  cultivated,  and  how  numerous  are  the  varieties  produced 
from  seed,  these  plants  have  not  perhaps  varied  so  much  by  offsets, 
—that  is,  by  the  production  of  new  bulbs,— as  might  have  been 
expected.  With  the  Hyacinth,  however,  several  instances  have 
been  given  by  M.  Carriere.  A case  also  has  been  recorded  of  a blue 
variety  which  for  three  successive  years  gave  offsets  producing 
white  flowers  with  a red  centre.®®  Another  hyacinth  bore  on  the 
same  truss  a perfectly  pink  and  a perfectly  blue  flower.  I have 
seen  a bulb  producing  at  the  same  time  one  stalk  or  truss  with  fine 
blue  flowers,  another  with  fine  red  flowers,  and  a third  with  blue 
flowers  on  one  side  and  red  on  the  other ; several  of  the  flowers 
being  also  longitudinally  striped  red  and  blue. 

Mr.  John  Scott  informs  me  that  in  1862  Imatopliyllum  miniafum, 
in  the  Botanic  Gardens  of  Edinburgh,  threw  up  a sucker  which 
differed  from  the  normal  form,  in  the  leaves  being  two-ranked 
instead  of  four-ranked.  The  leaves  were  also  smaller,  with  the 
upper  surface  raised  instead  of  being  channelled. 

In  the  propagation  of  Tulips,  seedlings  are  raised,  called  seifs  or 
breeders,  which,  “ consist  of  one  plain  colour  on  a white  or  yellow, 
“bottom.  These,  being  cultivated  on  a dry  and  rather  poor  soil, 
“ become  broken  or  variegated  and  produce  nevr  varieties.  The 
“ time  that  elapses  before  they  break  varies  from  one  to  twenty 


‘Gard.  Chrou.,’  1841,  p.  811. 
Ibid.,  1857,  p.  613. 

Ibid.,  1857,  p.  679.  See  also 
Philips,  ‘Ilist.  of  Vegetables,’  voi.  ii. 
p.  91,  for  other  and  similar  accounts. 

‘ Journal  of  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.,’ 
rol.  ii.  Botany,  p.  132. 


Loudon’s  ‘ Gard.  Mag.,’  vol.  viii., 
1832,  p.  94. 

‘Gard.  Chron.,’  1850,  p.  536; 
and  1842,  p.  729. 

‘ Des  Jacinthe  f &o.,  Amsterdam, 
1768,  p.  122. 

‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1845,  p.  212. 


412 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI. 


“ years  or  more,  and  sometimes  this  change  never  takes  place.” 
The  broken  or  variegated  colours  which  give  value  to  all  tulips  are 
due  to  bud-variation ; for  although  the  Bybloemens  and  some  other 
kinds  have  been  raised  from  several  distinct  breeders,  yet  all  the 
Baguets  are  said  to  have  come  from  a single  breeder  or  seedling. 
This  bud-variation,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  MM.  Vilmorin 
and  Verlot,^^  is  probably  an  attempt  to  revert  to  that  uniform 
colour  which  is  natural  to  the  species.  A tulip,  however,  which  has 
already  become  broken,  when  treated  with  too  strong  manure,  is 
liable  to  flush  or  lose  by  a second  act  of  reversion  its  variegated 
colours.  ISome  kinds,  as  Imperatrix  Florum,  are  much  more  liable 
than  others  to  flushing;  and  Mr.  Dickson  maintains^'*  that  this  can 
no  more  be  accounted  for  than  the  variation  of  any  other  plant. 
He  believes  that  English  growers,  from  care  in  choosing  seed 
from  broken  flowers  instead  of  from  plain  flowers,  have  to  a 
certain  extent  diminished  the  tendency  in  flowers  already  broken 
to  flushing  or  secondary  reversion.  Iris  xiphium,  according  to 
M.  Carriere  (p.  65),  behaves  in  nearly  the  same  manner,  as  do  so 
many  tulips. 

During  two  consecutive  years  all  the  early  flowers  in  a bed  of 
Tigridia  conchijlora  resembled  those  of  the  old  7'.  pavonia ; but 
the  later  flowers  assumed  their  proper  colour  of  fine  yellow,  spotted 
with  crimson.  An  apparently  authentic  account  has  been  published*^*^ 
of  two  forms  of  Hemerocallis,  which  have  been  universally  con- 
sidered as  distinct  species,  changing  into  each  other ; for  the  roots 
of  the  large-flowered  tawny  B.fulva,  being  divided  and  planted  in 
a different  soil  and  place,  produced  the  small-flowered  H.  Jiava,  as 
well  as  some  intermediate  forms.  It  is  doubtful  whether  such 
cases  as  these  latter,  as  well  as  the  ‘‘  flushing  ” of  broken  tulips  and 
the  “ running  ” of  particoloured  carnations, — that  is,  their  more  or 
less  complete  return  to  a uniform  tint, — ought  to  be  classed  under 
bud-variation,  or  ought  to  be  retained  for  the  chapter  in  which  I 
treat  of  the  direct  action  of  the  conditions  of  life  on  organic  beings. 
These  cases,  however,  have  this  much  in  bud-variation,  that  the 
change  is  effected  through  buds  and  not  through  seminal  re- 
production. But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  this  difference— that 
in  ordinary  cases  of  bud-variation,  one  bud  alone  changes,  whilst  in 
the  foregoing  cases  all  the  buds  on  the  same  plant  were  modified 
together.  With  the  potato,  we  have  seen  an  intermediate  case,  for 
all  the  eyes  in  one  tuber  simultaneously  changed  their  character. 

I will  conclude  with  a few  allied  cases,  which  may  be  ranked 
either  under  bud- variation,  or  under  the  direct  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life.  When  the  common  Hepatica  is  transplanted  from 


Loudon^s  ‘ Encyclopaedia  of  Gar- 
dening,’ p.  1024. 

‘ Production  des  Varietes,’  1865, 

p.  63. 

‘ Gard.  Chron,/  1841,  p.  782; 


184-2,  p.  55. 

85  ‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1849,  p.  565. 

8®  ‘Transact.  Linn.  Soc.,’  vol.  ii.  p. 
354. 


Chap.  XI. 


GRAFT-HYBEIDS. 


413 


its  native  woods,  the  flowers  change  colour,  even  during  the  first 
year.®^  It  is  notorious  that  the  improved  varieties  of  the  Hearts- 
ease ( Viola  tricolor),  when  transplanted,  often  produce  flowers  widely 
different  in  size,  form,  and  colour : for  instance,  I transplanted  a 
large  uniformly-coloured  dark  purple  variety,  whilst  in  full  flower, 
and  it  then  produced  much  smaller,  more  elongated  flowers,  with 
the  lower  petals  yellow ; these  were  succeeded  by  flowers  marked 
with  large  purple  spots,  and  ultimately,  towards  the  end  of  the 
same  summer,  by  the  original  large  dark  purple -flowers,  JThe 
slight . changes  which  some  fruit-trees  undergo  from  being  grafted 
and  regrafted  on  various  stocks,®®  were  considered  by  Andrew 
Knight®®  as  closely  allied  to  “sporting  branches,’’  or  bud-variations. 
Again,  we  have  the  case  of  young  fruit-trees  changing  their 
character  as  they  grow  old ; seedling  pears,  for  instance,  lose  with 
age  their  spines  and  improve  in  the  flavour  of  their  fruit.  Weeping 
birch-trees,  when  grafted  on  the  common  variety,  do  not  acquire  a 
perfect  pendulous  habit  until  they  grow  old ; on  the  other  hand,  I 
shall  hereafter  give  the  case  of  some  weeping  ashes  which  slowly 
and  gradually  assumed  an  upright  habit  of  growth.  All  such 
changes,  dependent  on  age,  may  be  compared  with  the  changes, 
alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter,  which  many  trees  naturally  undergo; 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Deodar  and  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  which  are 
unlike  in  youth,  whilst  they  closely  resemble  each  other  in  old 
age ; and  as  with  certain  oaks,  and  with  some  varieties  of  the  lime 
and  hawthorn.®® 

Graft-hybrids. — Before  giving  a summary  on  Bud- variation  I 
will  discuss  some  singular  and  anomalous  cases,  wdiich  are 
more  or  less  closely  related  to  this  same  subject.  I will 
begin  with  the  famous  case  of  Adam’s  laburnum  or  Gytisus 
adami,  a form  or  hj^brid  intermediate  between  two  very  dis- 
tinct species,  namely,  G.  laburnum  and  purpureus,  the  common 
and  purple  laburnum ; but  as  this  tree  has  often  been 
described,  I will  be  as  brief  as  I can. 

Throughout  Europe,  in  different  soils  and  under  different  climates, 


Godron,  ‘ De  I’Esp^ce,’  tom.  ii,  p. 
84. 

M.  Carrifere  has  lately  described, 
iu  the  ‘Kevue  Horticole,*  (Dec.  1, 
1866,  p.  457,)  an  extraordinary  case. 
He  twice  inserted  grafts  of  the  Aria 
vestita  on  thorn-trees  ieplnes)  growing 
in  pots  ; and  the  grafts,  as  they  grew, 
produced  shoots  with  bark,  buds, 
leaves,  petioles,  petals,  and  flower- 
stalks,  all  widely  different  from  those 


of  the  Aria.  The  grafted  shoots  were 
also  much  hardier,  and  flowered 
earlier,  than  those  on  the  ungrafted 
Aria. 

‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol  ii.  p. 

160. 

For  the  cases  of  oaks,  see  Alph. 
De  Candolle  in  ‘ Bibl.  Univers.,’ 
Geneva,  Nov.  1862;  for  limes,  &c., 
Loudon’s  ‘ Gard  Mag.,’  vol.  xi.,  1835, 
p.  503. 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


Chap.  X [. 


il4 

branches  on  this  tree  have  repeatedly  and  suddenly  reverted  to  the 
two  parent  species  in  their  flowers  and  leaves.  To  behold  mingled 
on  the  same  tree  tufts  of  dingy-red,  bright  yellow,  and  purple 
flowers,  borne  on  branches  having  widely  different  leaves  and 
manner  of  growth,  is  a surprising  sight.  The  same  raceme  some- 
times bears  two  kinds  of  flowers ; and  I have  seen  a single  flower 
exactly  divided  into  halves,  one  side  being  bright  yellow  and  the 
other  purple;  so  that  one  half  of  the  standard-petal  was  yellow  and 
of  larger  size,  and  the  other  half  purple  and  smaller.  In  another 
flower  the  whole  corolla  was  bright  yellow,  but  exactly  half  the 
calyx  was  purple.  In  another,  one  of  the  dingy-red  wing-petals  had  a 
narrow  bright  yellow  stripe  on  it ; and  lastly,  in  another  flower, 
one  of  the  stamens,  which  had  become  slightly  foliaceous,  was  half 
yellow  and  half  purple;  so  that  the  tendency  to  segregation  of 
character  or  reversion  affects  even  single  parts  and  organs.®^  The 
most  remarkable  fact  about  this  tree  is  that  in  its  intermediate 
state,  even  when  growing  near  both  jDarent- species,  it  is  quite 
sterile ; but  when  the  flowers  become  pure  yellow  or  pure  purple 
they  yield  seed,  I believe  that  the  pods  from  the  yellow  flowers 
yield  a full  complement  of  seed;  they  certainly  yield  a larger 
number.  Two  seedlings  raised  by  Mr.  Herbert  from  such  seed^-*^ 
exhibited  a purple  tinge  on  the  stalks  of  their  flowers ; but  several 
seedlings  raised  by  myself  resembled  in  every  character  the  common 
laburnum,  with  the  exception  that  some  of  them  had  remarkably 
long  racemes : these  seedlings  were  perfectly  fertile.  That  such 
purity  of  character  and  fertility  should  be  suddenly  reacquired 
from  so  hybridised  and  sterile  a form  is  an  astonishing  pheno- 
menon. The  branches  with  purple  flowers  appear  at  first  sight 
exactly  to  resemble  those  of  G.  purpureus ; but  on  careful  com- 
parison I found  that  they  differed  from  the  pure  species  in  the 
shoots  being  thicker,  the  leaves  a little  broader,  and  the  flowers 
slightly  shorter,  with  the  corolla  and  calyx  less  brightly  purple: 
the  basal  part  of  the  standard-petal  also  plainly  showed  a trace  of 
the  yellow  stain.  So  that  the  flowers,  at  least  in  this  instance,  had 
not  perfectly  recovered  their  true  character;  and  in  accordance 
with  this,  they  were  not  perfectly  fertile,  for  many  of  the  pods 
contained  no  seed,  some  produced  one,  and  very  few  contained  as 
m.any  as  two  seeds ; whilst  numerous  pods  on  a tree  of  the  pure  O. 
purpureus  in  my  garden  contained  three,  four,  and  five  fine  seeds. 
The  pollen,  moreover,  was  very  imperfect,  a multitude  of  grains 
being  small  and  shrivelled;  and  this  is  a singular  fact;  for,  as  we 
shall  immediately  see,  the  pollen-grains  in  the  dingy-red  and  sterile 
flowers  on  the  parent-tree,  were,  in  external  appearance,  in  a much 


* For  analogous  facts,  see  Braun, 
‘ Rejuvenescence,’  in  ■ Ray  Soc.  Bot. 
]flem.,’  1853,  p.  320;  and  ‘Card. 
Chron.,’  1842,  p.  397  ; also  Braun, 
in  ‘ Sitzungsberichte  der  Ges.  naUir- 


forschender  Freundc,’  June,  1873,  p. 
63. 

‘ Journal  of  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  ii 
1847,  p.  100. 


Ckap.  XL 


GKAFT-HYBRIDS. 


415 


better  state,  and  included  very  few  shrivelled  grains.  Although  tho 
pollen  of  the  reverted  purple  flowers  was  in  so  poor  a condition, 
the  ovules  were  well  formed,  and  the  seeds,  when  mature,  germi- 
nated freely  with  me.  Mr.  Herbert  raised  plants  from  seeds  of 
the  reverted  purple  flowers,  and  they  differed  a very  litth  from  the 
usual  state  of  C.  purpureus.  Some  which  I raised  in  the  same 
manner  did  not  differ  at  all,  either  in  the  character  of  their  flowers  or 
of  the  whole  bush,  from  the  pure  C.  purpureus. 

Prof.  Caspary  has  examined  the  ovules  of  the  dingy-red  and 
sterile  flowers  in  several  plants  of  G.  adami  on  the  Continent,®®  and 
finds  them  generally  monstrous.  In  three  plants  examined  by  me 
in  England,  the  ovules  were  likewise  monstrous,  the  nucleus 
varying  much  in  shape,  and  projecting  irregularly  beyond  the 
proper  coats.  The  pollen  grains,  on  the  other  hand,  judging  from 
their  external  appearance,  were  remarkably  good,  and  readily  pro- 
truded their  tubes.  By  repeatedly  counting,  under  the  microscope, 
the  proportional  number  of  bad  grains,  Prof.  Caspary  ascertained 
that  only  2‘5  per  cent,  were  bad,  which  is  a less  proportion  than  in 
the  pollen  of  three  pure  species  of  Cytisus  in  their  cultivated  state, 
viz.,  G.  purpureus,  laburnum,  and  alpinus.  Although  the  pollen  of 
G.  adami  is  thus  in  appearance  good,  it  does  not  follow,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Xaudin’s  observation®"^  on  Mirabilis,  that  it  would  be 
functionally  effective.  The  fact  of  the  ovules  of  G.  adami  being 
monstrous,  and  the  pollen  apparently  sound,  is  all  the  more  re- 
markable, because  it  is  opposed  to  what  usually  occurs  not  only 
with  most  hybrids,®^  but  with  two  hybrids  in  the  same  genus, 
namely  in  G.  purpureo-elongatus,  and  G.  dljiino-lahurnum.  In  both 
these  hybrids,  the  ovules,  as  observed  by  Prof  Caspary  and  my?elf, 
were  well-formed,  whilst  many  of  the  pollen-grains  were  ill-formed; 
in  the  latter  hybrid  20’3  per  cent.,  and  in  the  former  no  less  than 
84‘8  per  cent,  of  the  grains  were  ascertained  by  Prof  Caspary  to  be 
bad.  This  unusual  condition  of  the  male  and  female  reproductive 
elements  in  G.  a<iami  has  been  used  by  Prof  Caspary  as  an  argu- 
ment against  this  plant  being  considered  as  an  ordinary  hybrid 
produced  from  seed ; but  wm  should  remember  that  with  hybrids 
the  ovules  have  not  been  examined  nearly  so  frequently  as  the 
Xiollen,  and  they  may  be  much  oftener  imperfect  than  is  generally 
supposed.  Hr.  E.  Bornet,  of  Antibes,  informs  me  (through  Mr.  J. 
Traherne  Moggridge)  that  with  hybrid  Cisti  the  ovarium  is  fre- 
quently deformed,  the  ovules  being  in  some  cases  quite  absent,  and 
in  other  cases  incapable  of  fertilisation. 

Several  theories  have  been  propounded  to  account  for  the  origin 
of  G.  adami,  and  for  the  transformations  which  it  undergoes.  Tho 


See  ‘ Transact,  of  Hort.  Congress  ‘ Nouvelles  Archives  du  Mu- 

of  Amsterdam,’  1865  ; but  I owe  seum,’  tom.  i.  p.  143. 

most  of  the  following  information  to  See  on  this  head,  Naudin,  ibid., 

Prof.  Caspary’s  letters.  p.  141. 


416 


GRAFT-IIYBIIIDS. 


Chap.  XT. 


whole  case  has  been  attributed  by  some  authors  to  bud-variation ; 
but  considering  the  wide  ditFercnce  between  G.  hhurnum  and 
jmrpureus,  both  of  which  are  natural  species,  and  considering  the 
sterility  of  the  intermediate  form,  this  view  may  be  summarily 
rejected.  We  shall  presently  see  that,  with  hybrid  plants,  two 
embryos  differing  in  their  characters  may  be  developed  within  the 
same  seed  and  cohere ; and  it  has  been  supposed  that  C.  adami 
tlius  originated.  Many  botanists  maintain  that  C.  odami  is  a 
hybrid  produced  in  the  common  way  by  seed,  and  that  it  has 
reverted  by  buds  to  its  two  parent-forms.  Negative  results  are  not 
of  much  value;  but  Reisseck,  Caspary,  and  myself,  tried  in  vain  to 
cross  G.  lahurnum  oxidi  purpurms ; when  I fertilised  the  former  with 
pollen  of  the  latter,  I had  the  nearest  approach  to  success,  for  pods 
were  formed,  but  in  sixteen  days  after  the  withering  of  the  flowers, 
they  fell  off.  Nevertheless,  the  belief  that  G.  adami  is  a spon- 
taneously produced  hybrid  between  these  two  species  is  supported 
by  the  fact  that  such  hybrids  have  arisen  in  this  genus.  In  a bed 
of  seedlings  from  (\  elongatus,  which  grew  near  to  G.  purpureas,  and 
was  probably  fertilised  by  it  through  the  agency  of  insects  (for 
these,  as  I know  by  experiment,  play  an  important  part  in  the  fer- 
tilisation of  the  laburnum),  the  sterile  hybrid  G.  purpureo-elongatus 
appeared.®®  Thus,  also,  Waterer’s  laburnum,  the  G.  alpmc-labur- 
num^'^  spontaneously  appeared,  as  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Waterer, 
in  a bed  of  seedlings. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  a clear  and  distinct  account  given  to 
Poiteau,®®  by  M.  Adam,  who  raised  the  plant,  showing  that  G.  adami 
is  not  an  ordinary  hybrid;  but  is  what  may  be  called  a graft-hybrid, 
that  is,  one  produced  from  the  united  cellular  tissue  of  two  distinct 
species.  M.  Adam  inserted  in  the  usual  manner  a shield  of  the 
bark  of  G.  purpureus  into  a stock  of  G.  laburnum ; and  the  bud  lay 
dormant,  as  often  happens,  for  a year ; the  shield  then  produced 
many  buds  and  shoots,  one  of  which  grew  more  upright  and 
vigorous  with  larger  leaves  than  the  shoots  of  G.  purpureus,  and 


Braun,  in  ‘ Bot.  Mem.  Ray.  Soc.,’ 
1853,  p.  xxiii. 

This  hybrid  has  never  been  de- 
scribed. It  is  exactly  intermediate  in 
foliage,  time  of  flowering,  dark  striae 
at  the  base  of  the  standard  petal, 
hairiness  of  the  ovarium,  and  in 
almost  every  other  character,  b^'- 
tween  C.  la'iurnum  and  alpinus ; but 
it  approaches  the  former  species  more 
nearly  in  colour,  and  exceeds  it  in 
the  length  of  the  racemes.  We  have 
before  seen  that  20-3  per  cent,  of  its 
pollen-grains  are  ill-formed  and 
worthless.  My  plant,  though  grow- 
ing not  above  thirty  or  forty  yards 


from  both  parent-species,  during  some 
seasons  yielded  no  good  seeds  ; but  in 
1866  it  was  unusually  fertile,  and  its 
long  racemes  produced  from  one  to 
occasionally  even  four  pods.  Many 
of  the  pods  contained  no  good  seeds, 
b’-'t  generally  they  contained  a single 
apparently  good  seed,  sometimes  two, 
and  in  one  case  three  seeds.  Some  of 
theso  seeds  germinated,  and  1 raised 
two  trees  from  them  ; one  resembles 
the  present  form;  the  other  has  a 
remarkable  dwarf  character  with 
small  leaves,  but  has  not  yet  tlowered 
‘ Annalesde  la  Soc.  de  I’Hort.  de 
Paris,’  tom.  vii.,  1830,  p.  93. 


Chap.  XL 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


417 


was  consequently  propagated.  Now  it  deserves  especial  notice  that 
these  plants  were  sold  by  M.  Adam,  as  a variety  of  C.  purpureus, 
before  they  had  flowered;  and  the  account  was  published  by 
Poiteau  after  the  plants  had  flowered,  but  before  they  had  ex- 
hibited their  remarkable  tendency  to  revert  into  the  two  parent 
species.  So  that  there  v/as  no  conceivable  motive  for  falsification, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  there  could  have  been  any  error.®^  If 
we  admit  as  true  M.  Adam’s  account,  we  must  admit  the  extra- 
ordinary fact  that  two  distinct  species  can  unite  by  their  c^ular 
tissue,  and  subsequently  produce  a plant  bearing  leaves  and  sterile 
flowers  intermediate  in  character  between  the  scion  and  stock,  and 
producing  buds  liable  to  reversion ; in  short,  resembling  in  every 
important  respect  a hybrid  formed  in  the  ordinary  way  by  seminal 
reproduction. 

I will  therefore  give  all  the  facts  which  I have  been  able  to 
collect  on  the  formation  of  hybrids  between  distinct  species 
or  varieties,  without  the  intervention  of  the  sexual  organs.  F or 
if,  as  I am  now  convinced,  this  is  possible,  it  is  a most  im- 
portant fact,  which  will  sooner  or  later  change  the  views  held 
by  ph3^siologists  with  respect  to  sexual  reproduction.  A 
sufficient  body  of  facts  will  afterwards  be  adduced,  showing 
that  the  segregation  or  separation  of  the  characters  of  the 
two  parent-forms  by  bud-vaiiation,  as  in  the  case  of  Cyiisus 
adami,  is  not  an  unusual  though  a striking  phenomenon. 
We  shall  further  see  that  a whole  bud  may  thus  revert,  or 
only  half,  or  some  smaller  segment. 

The  famous  hizzarria  Orange  offers  a strictly  parallel  case  to  that 
of  Cytisns  adami.  The  gardener  who  in  1644  in  Florence  raised 
this  tree,  declared  that  it  was  a seedling  which  had  been  grafted ; 
and  after  the  graft  had  perished,  the  stock  sprouted  and  produced 
the  bizzarria.  Gallesio,  who  carefully  examined  several  living 
specimens  and  compared  them  with  the  description  given  by  the 
original  describer,  P.  Nato,^®®  states  that  the  tree  produces  at  the  same 
time  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  identical  with  the  bitter  orange  and 
with  the  citron  of  Florence,  and  likewise  compound  fruit,  with  the 
two  kinds  either  blended  together,  both  externally  and  internally, 


An  account  was  given  in  th&  ‘ Gar- 
dener’s Chronicle  ’ (1857,  pp.  382,  dOO) 
of  a common  laburnum  on  which  grafts 
of  C.  purpureus  had  been  inserted,  and 
which  grainally  assumed  the  charac- 
ter of  C.  adami;  but  t have  little 
doubt  that  C.  adami  had  been  sold  to 
the  purchaser,  who  was  not  a botanist, 
»u  the  place  of  C.  purpureus.  I have 

28 


ascertained  that  this  occurred  in 
another  instance. 

Gallesio,  ‘ Gli  Agrumi  dei  Giard. 
Bot.  Agrar.  di.  Firenze,’  1839,  p.  11. 
In  his  ‘Traite  du  Citrus,’  1811,  p. 
146,  he  speaks  as  if  the  compound 
fruit  consisted  in  part  of  a lemon,  but 
this  apparently  was  a mistake. 


418 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS 


Chap.  XI. 


or  segregated  in  various  ways.  This  tree  can  be  propagated  by 
cuttings,  and  retains  its  diversifted  character.  The  so-called  tri- 
facial orange  of  Alexandria  and  Smyrna  resembles  in  its  general 
nature  the  bizzarria,  and  differs  only  in  the  orange  being  of  the 
sweet  kind ; this  and  the  citron  are  blended  together  in  the  same 
fruit,  or  are  separately  produced  on  the  same  tree ; nothing  is 
known  of  its  origin.  In  regard  to  the  bizzarria,  many  authors 
believe  that  it  is  a graft-hybrid;  Gallesio,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks 
that  it  is  an  ordinary  hybrid,  with  the  habit  of  partially  revert- 
ing by  buds  to  the  two  parent-forms ; and  we  have  seen  that  the 
species  in  this  genus  often  cross  spontaneously. 

It  is  notorious  that  when  the  variegated  Jessamine  is  budded  on 
the  common  kind,  the  stock  sometimes  produces  buds  bearing 
variegated  leaves:  Mr.  Rivers,  as  he  informs  me,  has  seen  instances 
of  this.  The  same  thing  occurs  with  the  Oleander.^*^^  Mr.  Rivers, 
on  the  authority  of  a trustworthy  friend,  states  that  some  buds  of 
a golden- variegated  ash,  which  were  inserted  into  common  ashes, 
all  died  except  one ; but  the  ash-stocks  were  aff'ected,^'^^  and  pro- 
duced, both  above  and  below  the  points  of  insertion  of  the  plates 
of  bark  bearing  the  dead  buds,  shoots  which  bore  variegated  leaves. 
Mr.  J.  Anderson  JHenry  has  communicated  to  me  a nearly  similar 
case  : Mr.  Brown,  of  Perth,  observed  many  years  ago,  in  a Highland 
glen,  an  ash-tree  with  yellow  leaves ; and  buds  taken  from  this  tree 
were  inserted  into  common  ashes,  which  in  consequence  were  affected, 
and  produced  the  Blotched  Breadulhane  A^h.  This  variety  has  been 
propagated,  and  has  preserved  its  character  during  the  last  fifty 
years.  Weeping  ashes,  also,  were  budded  on  the  affected  stocks, 
and  became  siruilarly  variegated.  It  has  been  repeatedly  proved 
that  several  species  of  Abutilon,  on  which  the  variegated  A.  thompsovii 
has  been  grafted,  become  variegated.^^ 

Many  authors  consider  variegation  as  the  result  of  disease ; and  the 
foregoing  cases  may  be  looked  at  as  the  direct  result  of  the  inoculation 
of  a disease  or  some  weakness.  This  has  been  almost  proved  to  be 
the  case  by  Morren  in  the  excellent  paper  just  referred  to,  who  shows 
that  even  a leaf  inserted  by  its  footstalk  into  the  bark  of  the  stock 
is  sufficient  to  communicate  variegation  to  it,  though  the  leaf 
soon  perishes.  Even  fully  formed  leaves  on  the  stock  of  Abuti- 
lon are  sometimes  affected  by  the  graft  and  become  variegated. 
VAriegation  is  much  influenced,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  by  the 
nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  plants  are  grown ; and  it  does  not 


‘ Gsrd.  Chron.,’  1855,  p..  628. 
Bee  also  Prof.  Caspary,  in  ‘Transact, 
llort.  Congress  of  Amsterdam,’  1865. 

Gartner  (‘  Bastarderzengung,’  s, 
611)  gives  many  references  on  this 
subject. 

A nearly  similar  account  was 
given  by  Brabley.  in  1724,  in  his 
‘Treatise  on  Husbandry,’  vol.  i.  p. 


199 

1®’^  Mcrren,  ‘ Bull,  de  I’Acad.  R.  dea 
Sciences  de  Belgique,’  2de  series, 
tom.  xxviii.,  1869,  p.  434.  Also  Mag- 
nus, ‘ Gesellschaft  liaturforschender 
Freunde,  Berlin,’  Feb.  21,  1871,  p 
13:  ibid.,  June  21,  1870,  and  Oct.  17, 
1871.  Also  ‘ Bot.  Zeitung,’  Feb.  24, 
1871. 


Chap.  XI. 


GEAFT-HYBRIDS. 


419 


seem  improbable  that  whatever  change  in  the  sap  or  tissues  certain 
soils  induce,  whether  or  not  called  a disease,  might  spread  from  the 
inserted  piece  of  bark  to  the  stock.  But  a change  of  this  kind 
cannot  be  considered  to  be  of  the  nature  of  a graft-hybrid. 

There  is  a variety  of  the  hazel  with  dark-purple  leaves,  like  those 
of  the  copper-beech  : no  one  has  attributed  this  colour  to  disease, 
and  it  apparently  is  only  an  exaggeration  of  a tint  wdiich  may  often 
be  seen  on  the  leaves  of  the  common  hazel.  When  this  variety  is 
grafted  on  the  comm.on  hazel, it  sometimes  colours,  as  has4)een 
asserted,  the  leaves  below  the  graft ; although  negative  evidence  is 
not  of  much  value,  I may  add  that  Mr.  Rivers,  w'ho  lias  possessed 
hundreds  of  such  grafted  trees,  has  never  seen  an  instance. 

Gartner quotes  two  separate  accounts  of  branches  of  dark  and 
white-fruited  vines  which  had  been  united  in  various  ways,  such 
as  being  split  longitudinally,  and  then  joined,  &c. ; and  these 
branches  produced  distinct  bunches  of  grapes  of  the  tw'o  colours, 
and  other  bunches  with  berries,  either  striped,  or  of  an  intermediate 
and  new  tint.  Even  the  leaves  in  one  case  wero  variegated.  These 
facts  are  the  more  remarkable  because  Andrew  Kniglit  never  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  variegated  grapes  by  fertilising  white  kinds  by 
pollen  of  dark  kinds ; though,  as  we  have  seen,  he  obtained  seed- 
lings with  variegated  fruits  and  leaves,  by  fertilising  a white  variety 
by  the  already  variegated  dark  Aleppo  grape.  Gartner  attributes 
the  above-quoted  cases  merely  to  bud- variation ; but  it  is  a strange 
coincidence  that  the  branches  which  had  been  grafted  in  a peculiar 
manner  should  alone  thus  have  varied ; and  H.  Adorne  de  Tscharner 
positively  asserts  that  he  produced  the  described  result  more  than 
once,  and  could  do  so  at  will,  by  splitting  and  uniting  the  branches 
in  the  manner  described  by  him. 

I should  not  have  quoted  the  following  case  had  not  the  author 
of ‘Des  Jacinthes  ’ impressed  me  with  the  belief  not  only  of  his 
extensive  knowledge,  but  of  his  truthfulness:  he  says  that  bulbs  of 
blue  and  red  hyacinths  may  be  cut  in  two,  and  that  they  will  grow 
together  and  throw  up  a united  stem  (and  this  I have  myself  seen) 
with  flowers  of  the  two  colours  on  the  opposite  sides.  But  the 
remarkable  point  is,  that  flowers  are  sometimes  produced  with  the 
two  colours  blended  together,  which  makes  the  case  closely  analogous 
with  that  of  the  blended  colours  of  the  grapes  on  the  united  vine 
branches. 

In  the  case  of  roses  it  is  supposed  that  several  graft-hybrids  have 
been  formed,  but  there  is  much  doubt  about  these  cases,  owing  to 
the  frequency  of  ordinary  bud-variations.  The  most  trustworthy 
instance  known  to  me  is  one,  recorded  by  Mr.  Poynter,^®^  who 
assures  me  in  a letter  of  the  entire  accuracy  of  the  statement.  Jiom 
devoniensis  had  been  budded  some  years  previously  on  a white 


Loudon’s  ‘Arborotum,’  vol.  iv.  Amsterdam,  1768,  p.  124. 

p.  2595.  ‘Gard.  Chron.,’  1860,  p.  672, 

‘ Bastarderzeugung,’ s.  619.  with  a woodcut. 


420 


GrwVFT-HYBRlDS. 


Chap.  XT. 


l^aiiksian  rose;  and  from  the  much  enlarged  point  of  junction, 
whence  the  Devoniensis  and  Jhanksian  still  continued  to  grow,  a 
third  bi'anch  issued,  which  was  neither  pure  Banksian  nor  pure 
Devoniensis,  but  partook  of  the  character  of  both;  the  flowers 
resembled,  but  were  superior  in  character  to  those  of  the  variety 
called  Lamirque  (one  of  the  Noisettes),  while  the  shoots  were  similar 
in  their  manner  of  growth  to  those  of  the  Banksian  rose,  with  the 
exception  that  the  longer  and  more  robust  shoots  were  furnished 
with  prickles.  This  rose  was  exhibited  before  the  Floral  Committee 
of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London.  Dr.  Bindley  examined  it 
and  concluded  that  it  had  certainly  been  produced  by  the  mingling 
of  R.  hanksicB  with  some  rose  like  R.  deooniensis,  “ for  while  it  was 
very  greatly  increased  in  vigour  and  in  size  of  all  the  parts,  the 
leaves  were  half-way  between  a Banksian  and  Tea-scented  rose.” 
It  appears  that  rose-growers  were  previously  aware  that  the  Banksian 
rose  sometimes  affects  other  roses.  As  Mr.  Poynter's  new  variety  is 
intermediate  in  its  fruit  and  foliage  between  the  stock  and  scion, 
and  as  it  arose  from  the  point  of  junction  between  the  two,  it  is  very 
improbable  that  it  owes  its  origin  to  mere  bud-variation,  indepen- 
dently of  the  mutual  influence  of  the  stock  and  scion. 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  potatoes.  Mr.  E.  Trail  stated  in  1867 
before  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh  (and  has  since  given  me 
fuller  information),  that  several  years  ago  lie  cut  about  sixty  blue 
and  white  potatoes  into  halves  through  the  eyes  or  buds,  and  then 
carefully  joined  them,  destroying  at  the  same  time  the  other  eyes. 
Some  of  these  united  tubers  produced  white,  and  others  blue  tubers ; 
some,  however,  produced  tubers  partly  white  and  partly  blue; 
and  the  tubers  from  about  four  or  five  were  regularly  mottled  with 
the  two  colours.  In  these  latter  cases  we  may  conclude  that  a stem 
had  been  formed  by  the  union  of  the  bisected  buds,  that  is,  by  graft- 
hybridisation. 

In  the  'Botanische  Zeitung’  (May  16, 1868),  Professor  Hildebrand 
gives  an  account  with  a coloured  ligure,  of  his  experiments  on  two 
varieties  which  were  found  during  the  same  season  to  be  constant 
in  character,  namely,  a somewhat  elongated  rough-skinned  red  potato 
and  a rounded  smooth  white  one.  He  inserted  buds  reciprocally  into 
both  kinds,  destroying  the  other  buds.  He  thus  raised  two  plants, 
and  each  of  these  produced  a tuber  intermediate  in  character 
between  the  two  parent-forms.  That  from  the  red  bud  grafted 
into  the  white  tuber,  was  at  one  end  red  and  rough,  as  the  whole 
tuber  ought  to  have  been  if  not  affected ; in  the  middle  it  was 
smooth  with  red  stripes,  and  at  the  other  end  smooth  and  altogether 
white  like  that  of  the  stock. 

Mr.  Taylor,  who  had  received  several  accounts  of  potatoes  having 
been  grafted  by  ^vedge-shaped  pieces  of  one  variety  inserted  into 
another,  though  sceptical  on  the  subject,  made  twenty-four  experi- 
ments which  he  described  in  detail  before  the  Horticultural  Society. 


See  ‘ GarJ.  Chron.,’  1869,  p.  220. 


Chap.  XI. 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


421 


He  thus  raised  many  new  varieties,  some  like  the  graft  or  like  the 
stock*  others  having  an  intermediate  character.  Several  persons 
witn erased  the  digging  up  of  the  tubers  from  these  graft-hybrids; 
and  one  of  them,  Mr.  Jameson,  a large  dealer  in  potatoes,  writes 
thus,  “ They  were  such  a mixed  lot,  as  1 have  never  before  or  since 

seer,,.  They  were  of  all  colours  and  shapes,  some  very  ugly  and 
“ some  very  handsome.”  Another  witness  says  some  were  round, 
“ some  kidney,  pink-eyed  kidney,  piebald,  and  mottled  red  and 
‘*  purple,  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.”  Some  of  these  varieties  have 
lieen  found  valuable,  and  have  been  extensively  propagated, 
Mr.  Jameson  took  away  a large  piebald  potato  which  he  cut  into 
five  sets  and  propagated ; these  yielded  round,  white,  red,  and  pie- 
bald potatoes. 

Mr.  Fitzpatrick  followed  a different  p]an;^^°  he  grafted  togethei 
not  the  tubers  but  the  young  stems  of  varieties  producing  black, 
white,  and  red  potatoes.  The  tubers  borne  by  three  of  these  twin 
or  united  plants  were  coloured  in  an  extraordinary  manner;  one 
was  almost  exactly  half  black  and  half  white,  so  that  some  persons 
on  seeing  it  thought  that  two  potatoes  had  been  divided  and  re- 
joined; other  tubers  were  half  red  and  half  white,  or  curiously 
mottled  with  red  and  white,  or  with  red  and  black,  according 
to  the  colours  of  the  graft  and  stock. 

The  testimony  of  Mr.  Fenn  is  of  much  value,  as  he  is  "a  well 
known  potato- grower”  who  has  raised  many  new  varieties  by  crossing 
different  kinds  in  the  ordinary  manner.  He  considers  it  “ demon- 
strated” that  new,  intermediate  varieties  can  be  produced  by 
grafting  the  tubers,  though  he  doubts  whether  such  will  prove 
valuable.^^^  He  made  many  trials  and  laid  the  results,  exhibiting 
specimens,  before  the  Horticultural  Society.  Not  only  were  the 
tubers  affected,  some  being  smooth  and  white  at  one  end,  and 
rough  and  red  at  the  other,  but  the  stems  and  leaves  were  modified 
in  their  manner  of  growth,  colour  and  precocity.  Some  of  these 
graft-hybrids  after  being  propagated  for  three  years  still  showed  in 
their  haulms  their  new  character,  different  from  that  of  the  kind 
from  which  the  eyes  had  been  taken.  Mr.  Fenn  gave  twelve  of  the 
tubers  of  the  third  generation  to  Mr.  Alex.  Dean,  who  grew  them, 
and  was  thus  converted  into  a believer  in  graft-hybridisation, 
having  previously  been  a complete  sceptic.  For  comparison  he 
planted  the  pure  parent-forms  alongside  the  twelve  tubers ; and 
found  that  many  of  the  plants  from  the  latter  were  intermediate 
between  the  two  parent-forms  in  precocity,  in  the  tallness,  up- 
rightness, jointing,  and  robustness  of  the  stems,  and  in  the  size  and 
colour  of  the  leaves. 

Another  experimentalist,  Mr.  Eintoul,  grafted  no  less  than  fifty-nine 
tubers,  which  differed  in  shape  (some  being  kidneys)  in  smoothness 


‘ Gard.  Chron.,’ 1869,  p.  335.  hesion  of  the  united  wedges.  Sec 

‘ Gard.  Chron.,’  1869,  p.  1018,  with  also  ibid.,  1870,  pp.  1277,  128.3. 
remarks  by  Dr.  Masters  on  the  ad-  ‘ Gard.  Chr  jn.,’  1871,  p.  837. 


422 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


Chap.  XI. 


and  colour  and  many  of  the  plants  thus  raised  were  intermediate 
“ in  the  tubers  as  well  as  in  the  haulms.”  He  describes  the  more 
striking  cases. 

In  1871  I received  a letter  from  Mr.  Merrick,  of  Boston,  U.S.A., 
who  states  that,  “ Mr.  Fearing  Burr,  a very  careful  experimenter  and 
author  of  a much  valued  book,  ‘ The  Garden  Vegetables  cf 
“ America,’  has  succeeded  in  producing  distinctly  mottled  and 
most  curious  potatoes — evidently  graft-hybrids,  by  inserting  eyes 
**  from  blue  or  red  potatoes  into  the  substance  of  white  ones,  after 
removing  the  eyes  of  the  latter.  I have  seen  the  potatoes,  and 
they  are  very  curious.” 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  experiments  made  in  Germany,  since 
the  publication  of  Prof.  Hildebrand’s  paper.  Herr  Magnus  relates"^ 
the  results  of  numerous  trials  made  by  Herren  Eeuier  and  Linde- 
muth,  both  attached  to  the  Royal  Gardens  of  Berlin.  They  inserted 
the  eyes  of  red  potatoes  into  white  ones,  and  vice  verm.  Many- 
different  forms  partaking  of  the  characters  of  the  inserted  bud  and 
of  the  stock  were  thus  obtained;  for  instance,  some  of  the  tubers 
were  white  with  red  eyes. 

Herr  Magnus  also  exhibited  in  the  following  year  before  the  same 
Society  (Nov.  19,  1872),  the  produce  of  grafts  between  black,  white, 
and  red  potatoes,  made  by  Dr.  Neubert.  These  were  made  by 
uniting  not  the  tubers  but  the  young  stems,  as  was  done  by  Mr. 
Fitzpatrick.  The  result  was  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  all  the 
tubers  thus  produced  were  intermediate  in  character,  though  in  a 
variable  degree.  Those  between  the  black  and  the  white  or  the  red 
were  the  most  striking  in  appearance.  Some  from  between  the 
white  and  red  had  one  half  of  one  colour  and  the  other  half  of  the 
other  colour. 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  society  Herr  Magnus  communicated 
the  results  of  Dr.  Heimann’s  experiments  in  grafting  together  the 
tubers  of  red  Saxon,  blue,  and  elongated  white  potatoes.  The  eyes 
were  removed  by  a cylindrical  instrument,  and  inserted  into  corre- 
sponding holes  in  other  varieties.  The  plants  thus  produced  yielded 
a great  number  of  tubers,  which  were  intermediate  between  the  two 
parent-forms  in  shape,  and  in  the  colour  both  of  the  flesh  and  skin. 

Herr  Reuter  experimented,^^®  by  inserting  wedges  of  the  elongated 
White  Mexican  potato  into  a Black  Kidney  potato.  Both  sorts  are 
known  to  be  very  constant,  and  differ  much  not  only  in  form  and 
colour,  but  in  the  eyes  of  the  Black  Kidney  being  deeply  sunk, 
whereas  those  of  the  White  Mexican  are  superficial  and  of  a 
different  shape.  The  tubers  produced  by  these  hybrids  were 
intermediate  in  colour  and  form;  and  some  which  resembled  in 
form  the  graft,  i.e.  the  Mexican,  had  eyes  deeply  sunk  and  of  the 
same  shape  as  in  the  stock  or  Black  Kidney. 


‘ Card.  Chron.,’  1870,  p.  1506.  Berlin,’  Oct.  17,  1871. 

‘ Sitzungsbe'ichte  der  Gesell-  Ibitl.,  Nov.  17,  1874-.  ^ also 

schaft  uaturforschender  Freunde  zu  excolleut  remarks  by  Herr  Magnus. 


Chap.  XI. 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


423 


Any  one  who  will  attentively  consider  the  abstract  now 
given,  of  the  experiments  made  by  many  observers  in  several 
countries,  will,  I think,  be  convinced  that  by  grafting  two 
varieties  of  the  potato  together  in  various  ways,  hybridised 
plants  can  be  produced.  It  should  be  observed  that  several 
of  the  experimentalists  are  scientific  horticulturists,  and 
some  of  them  potato-growers  on  a large  scale,  who,  I hough 
beforehand  sceptical,  have  been  fully  convinced  of  the  possi  • 
bility,  even  of  the  ease,  of  making  graft-hybrids.  The  only 
way  of  escaping  from  this  conclusion  is  to  attribute  all  the 
many  recorded  cases  to  simple  bud- variation.  Undoubtedly 
the  potato,  as  we  have  seen  in  this  chapter,  does  some- 
times, though  not  often,  vary  by  buds ; but  it  should  be 
especially  noted  that  it  is  experienced  potato-growers,  whose 
business  it  is  to  look  out  for  new  varieties,  who  have  expressed 
unbounded  astonishment  at  the  number  of  new  forms  produced 
b}^  graft-hybridisation.  It  may  be  argued  that  it  is  merely 
the  operation  of  grafting,  and  not  the  union  of  two  kinds, 
which  causes  so  extraordinary  an  amount  of  bud- variation  ; 
but  this  objection  is  at  once  answered  by  the  fact  tliat  potatoes 
are  habitually  propagated  by  the  tubers  being  cut  into  pieces, 
and  the  sole  difference  in  the  case  of  graft-hybrids  is  that 
either  a half  or  a smaller  segment  or  a cylinder  is  jDlaced  in 
close  opposition  with  the  tissue  of  another  variety.  Moreover, 
in  twm  cases,  the  young  stems  were  grafted  together,  and  the 
plants  thus  united  yielded  the  same  results  as  when  the  tubers 
were  united.  It  is  an  argument  of  the  greatest  weight  that 
when  varieties  are  produced  b}^  simple  bud- variation,  they 
frequently  present  quite  new  characters  ; whereas  in  all  the 
numerous  cases  above  given,  as  Herr  Magnus  likewise  insists, 
the  graft-hybrids  are  intermediate  in  character  between  the 
two  forms  employed.  That  such  a result  should  follow  if  the 
one  kind  did  not  affect  the  other  is  incredible. 

Characters  of  all  kinds  are  affected  by  graft  hybridisaticm, 
in  whatever  way  the  grafting  may  liave  been  effected.  'Fhe 
plants  thus  raised  yield  tubers  which  partake  of  the  wide]  y 
different  colours,  form,  state  of  surface,  position  and  shajie 
of  the  vye  of  the  parents ; and  according  to  two  careful  ob- 
servers they  are  also  intermediate  in  certain  constitutional 


424 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


Chap.  XI. 


peculiarities.  But  we  should  hear  in  mind  that  in  all  the 
varieties  of  the  potato,  the  tubers  differ  much  more  than  any 
other  part. 

The  potato  affords  the  best  evidence  of  the  possibility  of 
the  formation  of  graft-hybrids,  but  we  must  not  overlook  the 
account  given  of  the  origin  of  the  famous  Cytisus  adami  by 
M.  Adam,  who  had  no  conceivable  motive  for  deception,  nnd 
tlie  exactly  parallel  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Bizzairia 
orange,  namely  by  graft-hybridisation.  Nor  must  the  cases 
be  undervalued  in  which  different  varieties  or  species  of  vines, 
hyacinths  and  roses,  have  been  grafted  together,  and  have 
yielded  intermediate  forms.  It  is  evident  that  graft-hybrids 
can  be  made  much  more  easily  with  some  plants,  as  the 
potato,  than  with  others,  for  instance  our  common  fruit  trees ; 
for  these  latter  have  been  grafted  by  the  million  during  many 
centuries,  and  though  the  graft  is  often  slightly  affected,  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  this  may  not  be  accounted  for,  merely 
by  a more  or  less  free  supply  of  nutriment.  Nevertheless, 
the  cases  above  given  seem  to  me  to  proA'e  that  under  certain 
unknown  conditions  graft-hj^bridisation  can  be  effected. 

Herr  Magnus  asserts  with  much  truth  that  graft-hybrids 
resemble  in  all  respects  seminal  hybrids,  including  their 
great  diversity  of  character.  Inhere  is,  however,  a partial 
exception,  inasmuch  as  the  characters  of  the  two  parent  forms 
are  not  often  homogeneously  blended  together  in  graft-hybrids, 
ddiey  much  more  commonly  appear  in  a segregated  condition, 

■ — that  is,  in  segments  either  at  first,  or  subsequently 
through  reversion.  It  would  seem  that  the  reproductive 
elements  are  not  so  completely  blended  by  grafting  as  by 
sexual  generation.  But  segregation  of  this  kind  occurs  by  no 
means  rarely,  as  will  be  immediately  shown,  in  seminal 
hybrids.  Finally  it  must,  I think,  be  admitted  that  we  learn 
from  the  foregoing  cases  a highly  important  physiological  fact, 
namely,  that  the  elements  that  go  to  the  production  of  a new 
being,  are  not  necessarily  formed  b}^  the  male  and  female  organs. 
I'hey  are  present  in  the  cellular  tissue  in  such  a state  that  they 
can  unite  without  the  aid  of  the  sexual  organs,  and  thus  give 
rise  to  a new  bud  partaking  of  the  characters  of  the  two 
parent  forms. 


UllAP.  XI. 


SEGREGATION  OF  CHARACTERS. 


4^5 


On  the  segregation  of  the  parental  characters  in  seminal  hybrids 
by  bud-variation.  — I will  now  give  a sufficient  number  of 
cases  to  show  that  segregation  of  this  kind,  namely,  by  buds, 
may  occur  in  ordinary  hybrids  raised  from  seed. 

Hybrids  were  raised  by  Gartner  between  TropcBolum  minus  and 
majas^^^  which  at  first  produced  flowers  intermediate  in  size,  colour, 
and  structure  between  their  two  parents;  but  later  in  the  season 
some  of  these  plants  produced  flowers  in  all  respects  like  those  of 
the  mother-form,  mingled  with  flowers  still  retaining  the  usual 
intermediate  condition.  A hybrid  Cereus  between  C.  speciosissimus 
and  phyllanthusf^  plants  which  are  widely  different  in  appearance, 
produced  for  the  first  three  years  angular,  five-sided  stems,  and 
then  some  flat  stems  like  those  of  C.  phyllanthus.  K51reuter  also 
gives  cases  of  hybrid  Lobelias  and  Verbascums,  which  at  first 
produced  flowers  of  one  colour,  and  later  in  the  season,  flowers  of  a 
different  colour.^^®  Naudin  raised  forty  hybrids  from  Ikdaru^ 
Icevis  fertilised  by  I),  stramouium ; and  three  of  these  hybrids 
produced  many  capsules,  of  which  a half,  or  quarter,  or  lesser 
segment  was  smooth  and  of  small  size,  like  the  capsule  of  the  pure 
i).  icevis,  the  remaining  part  being  spinose  and  of  larger  size,  like 
the  capsule  of  the  pure  D.  stramonium : from  one  of  these  com- 
posite capsules,  plants  perfectly  resembling  both  parent-forms  were 
raised. 

Turning  now  to  varieties.  A seedling  apple,  conjectured  to  be  of 
crossed  parentage,  has  been  described  in  France, which  bears 
fruit  with  one  half  larger  than  the  other,  of  a red  colour,  acid  taste, 
and  peculiar  odour ; the  other  side  being  greenish-yellow  and  very 
sweet : it  is  said  scarcely  ever  to  include  perfectly  developed  seed. 
I suppose  that  this  is  hot  the  same  tree  as  that  which  Gaudichaud 
exhibited  before  the  French  institute,  bearing  on  the  same  branch 
two  distinct  kinds  of  apples,  one  a reinetie  rouge,  and  the  other  like  a 
reinette  Canada  jaundtre : this  double-bearing  variety  can  be  propa- 
gated by  grafts,  and  continues  to  produce  both  kinds  ; its  origin  is 
unknown  The  Eev.  J.  D.  La  Touche  sent  me  a coloured  drawing 
of  an  apple  which  he  brought  from  Canada,  of  which  half,  surround- 
ing and  including  the  whole  of  the  calyx  and  the  insertion  of  the 
foot-stalk,  is  green,  the  other  half  being  brown  and  of  the  nature 
of  the  pomme  gris  apple,  with  the  line  of  separation  between  the  two 


‘ Bastarderzeugung,'  3.  549.  It 
I?,  however,  doubtful  whether  these 
{.1-ants  should  be  ranked  as  species  or 
varieths. 

Gartner,  ibid.,  s.  550. 

‘ Journal  de  Physique,’  tom. 
Kxiri.,  1873,  p.  100.  ‘Act.  Acad. 
St.  Pelersburgh,’  1781,  part  i.  p.  249. 


‘ Nouvelles  ArchAes  du  Mu- 
seum,’ tom.  i.  p.  49. 

L’Hermes,  Jan.  14,  1837, 

quoted  in  Loudon’s  ‘ Gard.  Mag.,’ 
vol.  xiii.  p.  230. 

‘ Comptes  Eendus,’ tom.  rxxiir,, 
1852,  p.  746. 


426 


SEGREGATION  OF  CHARACTERS. 


CilAP.  XI. 


halves  exactly  defined.  The  tree  was  a grafted  one,  and  Mr.  lia 
Touche  tliinks  tliat  tlie  branches  which  bore  this  curious  apjiie 
sprung  from  the  point  of  junction  of  the  graft  and  stock;  liad  this 
fact  been  ascertained,  the  case  would  probably  have  come  into  tho 
class  of  graft-hybrids  already  given.  But  the  branch  may  have 
S-pi-ung  from  the  stock,  which  no  doubt  was  a seedling. 

Prof.  H.  Lecoq,  who  has  made  a great  number  of  crossings 
1/etween  the  differently  coloured  varieties  of  Mirabilis 
finds  that  in  the  seedlings  the  colours  rarely  combine,  but  form 
distinct  stripes ; or  half  the  flower  is  of  one  colour  and  half  of  a 
different  colour.  Some  varieties  regularly  bear  flowers  striped  with 
yellow,  white,  and  red ; but  plants  of  such  varieties  occasionally 
produce  on  the  same  root  branches  with  uniformly  coloured  flowers 
of  all  three  tints,  and  other  branches  with  half-and-half  coloured 
floAvers,  and  others  with  marbled  flowers.  Gallesio^^^  crossed  recipro- 
cally white  and  red  carnations,  and  the  seedlings  were  striped;  but 
some  of  the  striped  plants  also  bore  entirely  Avhite  and  entirely  red 
flowers.  Some  of  these  plants  produced  one  year  red  flowers  alone, 
and  in  the  following  year  striped  flowers ; or  conA’ersely,  some  plants, 
after  having  borne  for  two  or  three  years  striped  flowers,  would 
revert  and  bear  exclusively  red  flowers.  It  may  be  worth  mention- 
ing that  I fertilised  the  Furple  bwtet-pea  {Lathyrus  odoratus)  with 
pollen  from  the  light-coloured  FuinUd  Lady : seedlings  raised  from 
the  same  pod  Avere  not  intermediate  in  character,  but  perfectly 
resembled  either  parent.  Later  in  the  summer,  the  plants  Avhich 
had  at  first  borne  flowers  identical  A\uth  those  of  the  Fainted  Lady, 
produced  flowers  streaked  and  blotched  with  purple ; shoAving  in 
these  darker  marks  a tendency  to  reversion  to  the  mother- variety. 
Andrew  Knight  fertilised  tAvo  white  grapes  with  pollen  of  the 
Aleppo  grape,  which  is  darkly  variegated  both  in  its  leaves  and 
fruit.  The  result  was  that  the  young  seedlings  Avere  not  at  first 
variegated,  but  all  became  variegated  during  the  succeeding  sum- 
mer; besides  this,  many  produced  on  the  same  plant  bunches  of 
grapes  Avhich  were  all  black,  or  all  white,  or  lead -coloured  striped 
with  white,  or  white  dotted  Avith  minute  black  stripes ; and  grapes 
of  all  these  shades  could  frequently  be  found  on  the  same  foot- 
stalk. 

I will  append  a very  curious  case,  not  of  bud-variation,  but  of  two 
cohering  embryos,  different  in  character  and  contained  within  the 
same  seed.  A distinguished  botanist,  Mr.  G.  H.  TliAvaites,^^^  states 
that  a seed  from  Fuchsia  coccinea  fertilised  by  F.fuLyens,  contained 
two  embryos,  and  Avas  “ a true  vegetable  tAvin.”  The  two  plants  pro- 
duced from  the  two  embryos  Avere  extremely  different  in  appear- 
ance and  character,’’  though  both  resembled  other  hybrids  of  the 


‘ Geograph.  Bot.  de  I’Europe,’ 
tom.  iii.,  1854,  p.  405  ; and  ‘ De  la 
F^condation,’  1862,  p.  302. 

‘23  ‘ 'rraite  du  Citrus,’  1811,  p.  45. 


‘2^  ‘ Transact.  Linn.  Soc.,’  vol.  ix, 

p.  268. 

‘25  ‘ Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hitt.. 
March,  1848 


Chap.  XL  DIEECT  ACTION  OF  THE  MALE  ELEMENT.  427 


same  parentage  produced  at  the  same  time.  These  twin  plants 

were  closely  coherent,  below  the  two  pairs  of  cotyledon-leaves, 
“ into  a single  cylindrical  stem,  so  that  they  had  subsequently  the 
“ appearance  of  being  branches  on  one  trunk.”  Had  the  two 
united  stems  grown  up  to  their  full  height,  instead  of  dying,  a 
curiously  mixed  hybrid  would  have  been  produced.  A mongrel 
melon  described  by  Sageret^^®  may  perhaps  have  thus  originated ; for 
the  two  main  branches,  which  arose  from  two  cotyledon-buds,  pro- 
duced very  different  fruit, — on  the  one  branch  like  that  of  the  paternal 
variety,  and  on  the  other  branch  like  to  a certain  extent  that  of  the 
maternal  variety,  the  melon  of  China. 

In  most  of  these  cases  of  crossed  varieties,  and  in  some  of 
the  cases  of  crossed  species,  the  colours  proper  to  both  parents 
appeared  in  the  seedlings,  as  soon  as  they  first  flowered,  in  the 
form  of  stripes  or  larger  segments,  or  as  whole  flowers  or  fruit 
of  different  kinds  borne  on  the  same  plant ; and  in  this  case 
the  appearance  of  the  two  colours  cannot  strictly  be  said  to  be 
due  to  revershii,  but  to  some  incapacity  of  fusion.  When, 
however,  the  later  flowers  or  fruit  produced  during  the  same 
season,  or  during  a succeeding  year  or  generation,  become 
stri[ied  or  half-and-half,  &c.,  the  segregation  of  the  two  colours 
is  strictly  a case  of  reversion  by  bud-variation.  Whether  all 
the  many  recorded  cases  of  striped  flt^wers  and  fruit  are  duo 
to  previous  hybridisation  and  reversion  is  by  no  means  clear, 
for  instance  with  peaches  and  nectarines,  moss-roses,  Ac.  In 
a future  chapter  I shall  show  that,  with  animals  of  crossed 
parentage,  the  same  individual  has  been  known  to  change  its 
character  during  growth,  and  to  revert  to  one  of  its  parents 
which  it  did  not  at  first  resemble.  Finally,  from  the  various 
facts  now  given,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  individual 
plant,  whether  a hybrid  or  a mongrel,  sometimes  returns  in 
its  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  either  wholly  or  by  segments,  to 
both  parent-forms. 

On  the  direct  or  immediate  action  of  the  male  element  on  the 
mother  form, — Another  remarkable  class  of  facts  must  be  here 
considered,  firstly,  because  they  have  a high  physiological  im- 
portance, and  secondly,  because  they  have  been  supposed  to 
account  for  some  cases  of  bud-variation.  I refer  to  the  direct 

128  ‘ Pomologle  Physiolog.,’  1830,  p.  126. 


423 


ON  THE  DIRECT  ACTION  OP  THE 


Chap.  XI 


action  of  the  male  element,  not  in  the  ordinary  Avay  on  the 
ovules,  hut  on  certain  parts  of  the  female  plant,  or  in  case  of 
animals  on  the  suhsequent  progeny  of  the  female  by  a second 
male.  I may  premise  that  with  plants  the  ovarium  and  tlie 
coats  of  the  ovules  are  obviously  parts  of  the  female,  and  it 
could  not  have  been  anticipated  that  they  would  have  been 
affected  b}"  the  pollen  of  a foreign  variety  or  species,  although 
the  develrpment  of  the  embryo,  inside  the  embryonic  sack, 
inside  the  ovule  and  ovarium,  of  course,  depends  on  the  male 
element. 

Even  as  long  ago  as  ,1729  it  was  observed  that  Avhite  and  blue 
varieties  of  the  Pea,  when  planted  near  eachother,  m at  nail  y crossed, 
no  doubt  through  the  agency  of  bees,  and  in  the  an  t a inn  blue  and 
white  peas  were  found  within  the  same  pods.  Wiegmann  made  an 
exactly  similar  observation  in  the  present  century.  The  same 
result  has  followed  several  times  when  a variety  with  peas  of  one 
colour  has  been  artiffcially  crossed  by  a differently- coloured  variety 
't  hese  statements  led  Gartner,  who  was  highly  sceptical  on  the 
subject,  carefully  to  try  a long  series  of  experiments : he  selected  the 
most  constant  varieties,  and  the  result  conclusively  showed  that  the 
colour  of  the  skin  of  the  pea  is  modified  when  pollen  of  a differently 
coloured  variety  is  used.  This  conclusion  has  since  been  confirmed 
by  experiments  made  by  the  Eev.  J.  M.  Berkeley 

Mr.  Laxton  of  Stamford,  whilst  making  experiments  on  peas  for  the 
express  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  influence  of  foreign  pollen  on 
the  mother-plant,  has  recently  observed  an  important  additional 
fact.  He  fertilised  the  Tall  Sugar-pea,  which  bears  very  thin  green 
j)ods,  becoming  brownish-white  when  dry,  with  pollen  of  the 
Purple-podded  pea,  which,  as  its  name  expresses,  has  dark-purple 
pods  with  very  thick  skin,  becoming  pale  reddish  purple  when  dry. 
Mr.  Laxton  has  cultivated  the  tall  sugar-pea  during  twenty  years, 
and  has  never  seen  or  heard  of  it  producing  a purple  pod  : neverthe- 
less, a flower  fertilised  by  pollen  from  the  purple- pod  yielded  a pod 
clouded  with  purplish-red  which  Mr.  Laxton  kindly  gave  to  me. 
A space  of  about  two  inches  in  length  towards  the  extremity  of  the 
pod,  and  a smaller  space  near  the  stalk,  were  thus  coloured.  On 
comparing  the  colour  with  that  of  the  purple  pod,  both  pods  having- 
been  first  dried  and  then  soaked  in  water,  it  was  found  to  be  identi- 
cally the  same ; and  in  both  the  colour  was  confined  to  the  cells  lying 
ii  imediately  beneath  the  outer  skin  of  the  pod.  The  valves  of  the 


‘ Fliiiosophical  Transact.,’  voi. 
Jt-iii.,  1744-46,  p.  525. 

Sir.  Goss,  in  -Transact.  Hort. 
S(x /ol.  V.  p.  2ot : and  Gartner, 


‘ Bastarderzeugung,’  1849,  ss.  81  and 
499. 

*2®  ‘Garl.  Chron.,’  1854,  p.  404. 
Ibid.,  1800,  p.  900. 


ChaP.  XL  MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHER-FCKM.  429 


crossed  pod  were  also  decidedly  thicker  and  stronger  than  those  of 
the  pods  of  the  mother-plant,  but  this  may  possibly  have  been  an 
accidental  circumstance,  for  I know  not  how  far  their  thickness  is  a 
variable  cliaracter  in  the  Tall  Sugar-pea. 

The  peas  of  the  Tall  Sugar- pea,  when  dry,  are  pale  greenish- 
brown,  thickly  covered  with  dots  of  dark  purple  so  minute  as  to  be 
visible  only  through  a lens,  and  Mr.  Lax  ton  has  never  seen  or  heard 
of  this  variety  producing  a purple  pea ; but  in  the  crossed  pod  one  of 
the  peas  was  of  a uniform  beautiful  violet-purple  tint;  and  a second 
was  irregularly  clouded  with  pale  purple.  The  colour  lies  in  the 
outer  of  the  two  coats  which  surround  the  pea.  As  the  peas  of  the 
purple-podded  variety  when  dry  are  of  a pale  greenish-buff,  it  would 
at  first  appeal  that  this  remarkable  change  of  colour  in  the  peas  in 
the  crossed  pod  could  not  have  been  caused  by  the  direct  action  of 
the  pollen  of  the  purpie-pod : but  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  this 
latter  variety  has  purple  flowers,  purple  marks  on  its  stipules,  and 
purple  pods;  and  that  the  Tall  Sugar-pea  likewise  has  purple  flowers 
and  stipules,  and  microscopically  minute  purple  dots  on  the  peas, 
we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  tendency  to  the  production  of  purple 
in  both  parents  has  in  combination  modified  the  colour  of  the  peas 
in  the  crossed  pod.  After  having  examined  these  specimens,  1 
crossed  the  same  two  varieties,  and  the  peas  in  one  pod  but  not  the 
pods  themselves,  were  clouded  and  tinted  with  purplish- red  in  a 
much  more  conspicuous  manner  than  the  peas  in  the  uncrossed 
pods  produced  at  the  same  time  by  the  same  plants.  I may  notice 
as  a caution  that  Mr.  Laxton  sent  me  various  other  crossed  peas 
slightly,  or  even  greatly,  modified  in  colour;  but  the  change  in 
these  cases  was  due,  as  had  been  suspected  by  Mr.  Laxton,  to  the 
altered  colour  of  the  cotyledons,  seen  through  the  transparent  coats 
of  the  peas ; and  as  the  cotyledons  are  parts  of  the  embryo,  these 
cases  are  not  in  any  way  remarkable. 

Turning  now  to  the  genus  Matthiola.  The  pollen  of  one  kind  of 
stock  sometimes  affects  the  colour  of  the  seeds  of  another  kind,  used 
as  the  mdther-plant.  I give  the  following  case  the  more  readily, 
as  Gartner  doubted  similar  statements  previously  made  with  respect 
to  the  stock  by  other  observers.  A well-known  horticulturist, 
Major  Trevor  Clarke,  informs  me^^^  that  the  seeds  of  the  large  red- 
flowered  biennial  stock,  Matthiola  annua  {Gocardeau  of  the  French), 
are  light  brown,  and  those  of  the  purple  branching  Queen  stock 
{M.  incKiiu)  are  violet-black;  and  he  found  that,  when  flowers  of 
the  red  stock  were  fertilised  by  pollen  from  the  purple  stock,  they 
yielded  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  black  seeds.  He  sent  me  four  pods 
from  a red  flowered  plant,  two  of  which  had  been  fertilised  by  their 
own  pollen,  and  they  included  pale  brown  seed;  and  two  "which 
had  been  crossed  by  pollen  from  the  purple  kind,  and  they  included 
seeds  all  deeply  tinged  with  black.  These  latter  seeds  yielded 


'**  See  also  a paper  by  this  ob-  Hort.  and  Bot.  Congress  of  Loudon, 
server,  read  before  the  International  1866. 


430 


ON  THE  DIEECT  ACTION  OF  Tuf  Chip  XL 


pnrple-flo-^ered  plants  like  their  father;  whilst  the  pale  hrowii 
seeds  yielded  normal  red-flowered  plants;  and  Major  Clarke,  by 
sowing  similar  seeds,  has  observed  on  a greater  scale  the  same 
result.  The  evidence  in  this  case  of  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen 
of  one  species  on  the  colour  of  the  seeds  of  another  species  appears 
to  me  conclusive. 

Gallesio^^^  fertilised  the  flowers  of  an  orange  with  pollen  from  the 
lemon;  and  one  fruit  thus  produced  bore  a longitudinal  stripe  of 
peel  having  the  colour,  flavour,  and  other  characters  of  the  lemon. 
Mr.  Anderson fertilised  a green-fleshed  melon  with  pollen  from  a 
scarlet-fleshed  kind;  in  two  of  the  fruits  ^'a  sensible  change  was 
perceptible:  and, four  other  fruits  were  somewhat  altered  both 
internally  and  externally.”  The  seeds  of  the  two  flrst-mention('d 
fruits  produced  plants  partaking  of  the  good  properties  of  both 
parents.  In  the  United  States,  where  Cucurbitaceas  are  largely 
cultivated,  it  is  the  popular  belief’^^  that  the  fruit  is  thus  directly 
affected  by  foreign  pollen ; and  I have  received  a similar  statement 
with  respect  to  the  cucumber  in  England.  It  is  believed  that 
grapes  have  been  thus  affected  in  colour,  size,  and  shape  : in  France 
a pale-coloured  grape  had  its  juice  tinted  by  the  pollen  of  the  dark- 
coloured  Teinturier ; in  Germany  a variety  bore  berries  which  were 
affected  by  the  pollen  of  two  adjoining  kinds ; some  of  the  berries 
being  only  partially  affected  or  mottled.^"® 

As  long  ago  as  1751^^®  it  was  observed  that,  when  differently- 
coloured  varieties  of  maize  grew  near  each  other,  they  mutually 
affected  each  other’s  seeds,  and  this  is  now  a popular  belief  in  the 
United  States.  Ur.  Savi^®'^  tried  the  experiment  with  care  : he 
sowed  yellow  and  black-seeded  maize  together,  and  on  the  same  ear 
some  of  the  seeds  were  yellow,  some  black,  and  some  mottled,  the 
differently  coloured  seeds  being  arranged  irregularly  or  in  rows. 
Prof.  Hildebrand  has  repeated  the  experiment^®®  with  the  ])recaution 
of  ascertaining  that  the  mother- plant  was  true.  A kind  bearing 
yellow  grains  was  fertilised  with  pollen  of  a kind  having  brown 
grains,  and  two  ears  produced  yellow  grains  mingled  witlT  others  of 
a dirty  violet  tint.  A third  ear  had  only  yellow  grains,  but  one  side 
of  the  spindle  w^as  tinted  of  a reddish-brown  ; so  that  here  we  have 
the  important  fact  of  the  influence  of  the  foreign  pollen  extending 


‘Traite  du  Citrus,’  p.  40. 

133  i Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,’  vol.  iii. 
p 318.  See  also  vol.  v.  p.  65. 

134  Prof.  Asa  Gray,  ‘ Proc.  Acad. 
Sc  Boston,  vol.  iv.,  1860,  p.  21.  I 
have  received  statements  to  the  same 
effect  from  other  persons  in  the  United 
States. 

'35  por  the  French  case,  see  ‘ Jonrn. 
Hort.  SoCi,’  vol.  i.  new  sej-ies,  1866,  p. 
50.  For  Germany,  see  M.  Jack, 


quoted  in  Henfrey’s  ‘ Botanical 
Gazette,’  vol.  i.  p.  277.  A case  in 
England  has  recently  been  alluded  to 
by  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Berkeley  before  the 
Hort.  Soc.  of  London. 

136  < Philosophical  Transactions,’ 
vol.  xlvii.,  1751-52,  p.  206. 

Gallesio,  ‘Teoria  della  Riprodu- 
zione  ’ 1816,  p.  95. 

138  < Zcitung,*  May,  1868,  p 
326. 


Chap.  XL  MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHER-FORM. 


431 


to  the  axis.  Mr.  Arnold,  in  Canada,  varied  the  experiment  in  an 
interesting  manner:  “a  female  flower  was  subjected  first  to  the 
“ action  of  pollen  from  a yellow  variety,  and  then  to  that  from  a 
white  variety ; the  result  was  an  ear,  each  grain  of  which  was 
^'yellow  below  and  white  above.” With  other  plants  it  has 
occasionally  been  observed  that  the  crossed  offspring  show^ed  the 
influence  of  two  kinds  of  pollen,  but  in  this  case  the  two  kinds 
affected  the  mother-plant. 

Mr.  Sabine  states  that  he  has  seen  the  form  ol  the  nearly 
globular  seed-capsule  of  Amaryllis  vittata  altered  by  the  application 
of  the  pollen  of  another  species,  of  which  the  capsule  has  gibbous 
angles.  With  an  allied  genus,  a well-known  botanist,  Maximowicz, 
has  described  in  detail  the  striking  results  of  reciprocally  fertilising 
Lilium  hulhiferum  and  davuricum  with  each  other's  pollen.  Each 
species  produced  fruit  not  like  its  ovm,  but  almost  identical  with 
that  of  the  pollen-bearing  species ; but  from  an  accident  only  the 
fruit  of  the  latter  species  was  carefully  examined;  the  seeds  were 
intermediate  in  the  development  of  their  wings.^^^ 

Eritz  Miiller  fertilised  Cattleya  leoyoldi  with  pollen  of  Epidendron 
cmnahariaum ; and  the  capsules  contained  very  few  seeds ; but  these 
presented  a most  wonderful  appearance,  which,  from  the  description 
given,  two  botanists,  Hildebrand  and  Maximowicz,  attribute  to  the 
direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  the  Epidendron^^^ 

Mr.  J.  Anderson  Henry  crossed  Rhododendron  dalhousice  with 
the  pollen  of  R.  nuttallii,  which  is  one  of  the  largest-flowered  and 
noblest  species  of  the  genus.  The  largest  pod  produced  by  the 
former  species,  when  fertilised  with  its  own  pollen,  measured  If  inch 
in  length  and  Ih  in  girth;  whilst  three  of  the  pods  which  had  been 
fertilised  by  pollen  of  R.  nuttallii  measured  If  inch  in  length  and 
no  less  than  2 inches  in  girth.  Here  the  effect  of  the  foreign  pollen 
was  apparently  confined  to  increasing  the  size  of  the  ovarium ; but 
we  must  be  cautious  in  assuming,  as  the  following  case  shows,  that 
size  had  been  transferred  from  the  male  parent  to  the  capsule  of  the 
female  plant.  Mr.  Henry,  fertilised  Arabis  blepharophylla  with  pollen 
of  A.  soyeri,  and  the  pods  thus  produced,  of  which  he  was  so  kind 
as  to  send  me  detailed  measurements  and  sketches,  were  much 
larger  in  all  their  dimensions  than  those  naturally  produced  by 
either  the  male  or  female  parent-species.  In  a future  chapter  we 
shall  see  that  the  organs  of  vegetation  in  hybrid  plants,  indepen- 


See  Dr,  J.  Stockton-Hough,  m 
AnKTican  Naturalist,’  Jan.  1874,  p, 
29. 

‘Transact  Hort.  Soc.,’ vol.  v. 

p 69, 

‘ Bull,  de  I’Acad.  Imp.  de  St. 
Petersburg,’  tom.  xvii.  p.  275,  1872. 
The  author  gives  references  to  those 
cases  in  the  Solanacea)  of  fruit  affected 


by  foreign  pollen,  but  as  it  does  nos 
appear  that  the  mother-plant  was 
artificially  fertilised,  1 have  not 
entered  into  details. 

‘ Bot.  Zeitung,’  Sept.  1868,  p. 
631.  For  Maximowicz’s  judgment, 
see  the  paper  last  referred  to. 

‘ .lournal  of  Ih  rticulture,’  Jan 
20,  1863,  p.  46. 


4B2 


ON  THE  DIRECT  ACTION  OF  THE 


Chap.  XI 


deiitly  of  the  character  of  either  parent,  are  soraeiimes  developed 
lo  a monstrous  size;  and  ihe  increased  size  of  the  pods  in  the  foro- 
poing  cases  may  be  an  analogous  fact.  On  the  other  hand,  M.  de 
Saporta  informs  me  that  an  isolated  female  plant  of  Pistacin  vera  is 
very  apt  to  be  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  neighbouring  plants  of 
P.  terehinflnis,  and  in  this  case  the  fruits  are  only  half  their  pro])cr 
size,  which  he  attributes  to  the  influence  of  the  pollen  of  P. 
ierdl'ivhus. 

No  case  of  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  one  variety  on  another 
is  better  authenticated  or  more  remarkable  than  that  of  the  common 
apple.  The  fruit  here  consists  of  the  lower  part  of  the  calyx  and  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  flower- peduncle^^^  in  a metamorphosed  con- 
dition, so  that  the  effect  of  the  foreign  pollen  has  extended  even  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  ovarium.  Cases  of  apples  thus  affected  were 
recorded  by  Bradley  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  ; and  other 
cases  are  given  in  old  volumes  of  the  ‘ Philosophical  Transactions;’^^® 
in  one  of  these  a Russeting  apple  and  an  adjoining  kind  mutually 
affected  each  other’s  fruit ; and  in  another  case  a smooth  apple 
affected  a rough-coated  kind.  Another  instance  has  been  given 
of  two  very  different  apple-trees  growing  close  to  each  other,  which 
bore  fruit  resembling  each  other,  but  only  on  the  adjoining  branches. 
It  is,  however,  almost  superfluous  to  adduce  these  or  other  cases, 
after  that  of  the  St.  Yalery  apple,  the  flowers  which,  from  the  ab- 
ortion of  the  stamens,  do  not  produce  pollen,  but  are  fertilised  by 
the  girls  of  the  neighbourhood  with  pollen  of  many  kinds  ; and  they 
bear  fruit,  differing  from  one  another  in  size,  flavour,  and  colour, 
but  resembling  in  character  the  hermaphrodite  kinds  by  which  they 
have  been  fertilised.”^^^ 


I have  now  shown,  on  the  authority  of  several  excellent 
observers,  in  the  case  of  plants  belonging  to  widely  different 
orders,  that  the  pollen  of  one  species  or  variety,  when  applied 
to  the  female  of  a distinct  form,  occasional!}’  causes  the  coats 
of  the  seeds,  the  ovarium  or  fruit,  including  even  the  calyx 
and  upper  part  of  the  peduncle  of  the  apple,  and  the  axis 
of  the  ear  in  maize,  to  be  modified.  Sometimes  the  whole 
ovarium  or  all  the  seeds  are  thus  affected ; sometimes  only  a 


See  on  this  head  the  high 
anthoi’ity  of  Prof.  Decaisne,  in  a paper 
translated  in  ‘ .lourn.  H >rt.  Soc.,’  vol. 
i.  new  series,  1866,  p.  48. 

Vol.  xliii.,  1744-45,  p.  525  : 
vol.  xlv.,  1747-48,  p.  602. 

‘ Transact.  Hort.  Soo.,’  vol.  v. 
pp.  65  and  68..  See,  also,  Pi-of. 
Hildebrand,  with  a coloured  figure, 
in  ‘ Bot.  Zeitung,’  May  15,  lo68,  p. 


327.  Puvis  also  has  collected,  ‘ De  la 
Degeneration,’  1837,  p.  36)  sev'eral 
other  instances;  but  it  is  not  in  a 1 
cases  possible  to  distinguish  betwe*  n 
the  direct  action  of  foreign  pollen  ai  d 
bud-variations. 

T.  de  Clermont-Tornerro,  ip 
‘ Mein,  dc  la  8ov,  Linn,  ’e  Pari.s,'  tom. 
iii.,  1825,.  p.  164. 


Chap.  XI.  MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHEK-FOKM. 


433 


certain  number  of  the  seeds,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pea,  or  only 
a part  of  the  ovarium,  as  with  the  striped  orange,  mottled 
grapes,  and  maize,  is  thus  atfected.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  any  direct  or  immediate  effect  invariably  follows  the 
use  of  foreign  pollen : this  is  far  from  being  the  case  ; nor 
is  it  known  on  what  conditions  the  result  depends.  Mr. 
Knight  expressly  states  that  he  has  never  seen  the  fruit 
thus  affected,  though  he  crossed  thousands  of  apple  and  other 
fruit-trees. 

There  is  not  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  a branch  which 
has  borne  seed  or  fruit  directly  modified  by  foreign  pollen  is 
itself  affected,  so  as  afterwards  to  produce  modified  buds ; 
such  an  occurrence,  from  the  temporal'}^  connection  of  the 
flower  with  the  stem,  would  be  hardly  possible.  Hence,  but 
very  few,  if  any,  of  the  cases  of  bud-variation  in  the  fruit  of 
trees,  given  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  can  be  accounted 
for  by  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  ; for  such  fruits  have 
commonly  been  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting.  It  is 
also  obvious  that  changes  of  colour  in  flowers,  which  neces- 
sarily supervene  long  before  they  are  ready  for  fertilisation, 
and  changes  in  the  shape  or  colour  of  leaves,  when  due  to  the 
appearance  of  modified  buds,  can  have  no  relation  to  the 
action  of  foreign  pollen. 

The  proofs  of  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  mother- 
plant  have  been  given  in  considerable  detail,  because  this 
action,  as  we  shall  see  in  a future  chapter,  is  of  the  highest 
theoretical  importance,  and  because  it  is  in  itself  a remarkable 
and  apparently  anomalous  circumstance.  That  it  is  remark- 
able under  a physiological  point  of  view  is  clear,  for  the 
male  element  not  only  affects,  in  accordance  with  its  proper 
function,  the  germ,  but  at  the  same  time  various  parts  of  the 
mother-plant,  in  the  same  manner,  as  it  affects  the  same  part 
in  the  seminal  offspring  from  the  same  two  parents.  We  thus 
learn  that  an  ovule  is  not  indispensable  for  the  reception  of 
the  influence  of  the  male  element.  But  this  direct  action  of 
the  male  element  is  not  so  anomalous  as  it  at  first  appears, 
for  it  comes  into  play  in  the  ordinary  fertilisation  of  many 

‘ Transact,  of  Hort.  Soc.,*  vol.  v.  p.  08. 


29 


434 


ON  THE  DIIIECT  ACTION  OF  THE 


CirAP.  XL 


flowers.  Gartner  gradually  increased  the  number  of  pollen 
grains  until  he  succeeded  in  fertilising  a Malva,  and  has^'^'^ 
proved  that  many  grains  are  first  expended  in  the  development, 
or,  as  ho  expresses  it,  in  the  satiation,  of  the  pistil  and  ovarium. 
Again,  when  one  plant  is  fertilised  by  a widely  distinct 
species,  it  often  happens  that  the  ovarium  is  fully  and  quickly 
developed  without  any  seeds  being  formed  ; or  the  coats  of 
the  seeds  are  formed  without  any  embryo  being  developed 
within.  Prof.  Hildebrand,  also,  has  lately  shown  that,  in 
the  normal  fertilisation  of  several  OrchidesD,  the  action  of 
the  plant’s  own  pollen  is  necessary  for  the  development  of 
the  ovarium ; and  that  this  development  takes  place  not. 
only  long  before  the  pollen- tubes  have  reached  the  ovules, 
but  even  before  the  placentae  and  ovules  have  been  formed ; 
so  that  with  these  orchids  the  pollen  acts  directly  on  the 
ovarium.  On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  overrate  the  effi- 
cacy of  pollen  in  the  case  of  hybridised  plants,  tor  an  embryo 
may  be  formed  and  its  influence  excite  the  surrounding  tissues 
of  the  mother-plant,  and  then  perish  at  a very  early  age 
and  be  thus  overlooked.  Again,  it  is  well  known  that  with 
many  i)lants  the  ovarium  may  be  fully  developed,  though 
pollen  be  wdiolly  excluded.  Lastly,  Mr.  Smith,  the  late 
Curator  at  Kew  (as  I hear  through  Dr.  Hooker),  observed 
with  an  orchid,  the  Bonatea  speciosa,  the  singular  fact  that  the 
development  of  the  ovarium  could  be  effected  by  the  mechanical 
irritation  of  the  stigma.  Nevertheless,  from  the  number  of 
the  pollen-grains  expended  “ in  the  satiation  of  the  ovarium 
and  pistil,” — from  the  generality  of  the  formation  of  the 
ovarium  and  seed-coats  in  hybridised  plants  which  produce 
no  seeds, —and  from  Dr.  Hildebrand’s  observations  on  orchids, 
we  may  admit  that  in  most  cases  the  swelling  of  the 
OA'arium,  and  the  formation  of  the  seed-coats  are  at  least 
aided,  if  not  wholly  caused,  by  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen, 
independently  of  the  intervention  of  the  feitilised  germ. 
Therefore,  in  the  previously  given  cases  we  have  only  to 

‘ Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Wirkung  des  Pollens,’  ‘ Botanischd 
Befruchtung,’  1844,  s.  347-351.  Zeitung,’ No.  44  et  seq.,  Oct.  30,  18t‘o 

150  1 Die  Fru'ilitbildung  dsr  Orchi-  and  Aug.  4,  1865,  s.  249. 
deen,  ein  Beweis  fiir  die  doppelte 


UiiAt.  XI  MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHEE-FOKM.  435 

believe  in  tlie  further  power  of  pollen,  when  applied  to  a 
distinct  species  or  variety,  to  influence  the  shape,  size,  colour, 
texture,  &c.,  of  certain  parts  of  the  mother-plant. 

Turning  now  to  the  animal  kiugdum.  If  we  could  imagine 
the  same  flower  to  yield  seeds  during  successive  years,  then  it 
would  not  be  very  surprising  that  a flower -of  which  the 
ovarium  had  been  modified  by  foreign  pollen  should  next 
year  produce,  when  self- fertilised,  offspring  modified  by 
the  previous  male  influence.  Closely  analogous  cases  have 
actually  occurred  with  animals.  In  the  case  often  quoted 
from  Lord  Morton, a nearly  purely-bred  Arabian  chesnut 
mare  bore  a hybrid  to  a quagga ; she  w^as  subsequently  sent 
to  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  and  produced  two  colts  by  a black  Arabian 
horse.  These  colts  were  partially  dun-coloured,  and  were 
striped  on  the  legs  more  plainly  than  the  real  hybrid,  or  even 
than  the  quagga.  One  of  the  two  colts  had  its  neck  and 
some  other  parts  of  its  body  plainly  marked  with  stripes. 
Stripes  on  the  body,  not  to  mention  those  on  the  legs,  are  ex- 
tremely rare, — I speak  after  having  long  attended  to  the 
subject, — with  horses  of  all  kinds  in  Europe,  and  are  almost 
unknown  in  the  case  of  Arabians.  But  what  makes  the  case 
still  more  striking  is  that  in  these  colts  the  hair  of  the  mane 
resembled  that  of  the  quagga,  being  short,  stiff,. and  upright. 
Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  quagga  affected  the 
character  of  the  offspring  subsequently  begot  by  the  black 
Arabian  horse.  Mr.  Jenner  Weir  informs  me  of  a strictly 
parallel  case;  his  neighbour  Mr.  Lethbridge,  of  Blackheath, 
has  a horse,  bred  by  Lord  Mostyn,  which  had  previously 
borne  a foal  by  a quagga.  This  hoT  se  is  dun  with  a dark 
stripe  down  the  back,  faint  stripes  on  the  forehead  between  the 
eyes,  plain  stripes  on  the  inner  side  of  the  fore-legs  and  rather 
more  faint  ones  on  the  hind-legs,  with  no  shoulder-stripe. 
The  mane  grows  much  lower  on  the  forehead  than  in  the 
horse,  but  not  so  low  as  in  the  quagga  or  zebra.  The  hoofs 
are  proportionally  longer  than  in  the  horse,  — so  much  s('  that 
the  farrier  who  first  shod  this  animal,  and  knew  nothing  of 


‘Philos.  Transact.,’  1821,  p.  20. 


436 


ACTION  OF  MALE  ELEMENT. 


ClIAI>.  XI. 


its  origin,  said,  “ Had  I not  seen  I was  shoeing  a horse,  I 
should  have  thought  I was  shoeing  a donkey.” 

With  respect  to  the  varieties  of  our  domesticated  animals, 
many  similar  and  vsrell-authenticated  facts  have  been  pub* 
lislied,^'"'-^  and  others  have  been  communicated  to  me,  plainly 
showing  the  influence  of  the  first  male  on  the  progeny  sub- 
sequently borne  by  the  mother  to  other  males.  It  will 
suffice  to  give  a single  instance,  recorded  in  the  ‘ Philosophical 
I'ransactions,’  in  a paper  following  that  by  Lord  Morton  ; 
Mr.  Giles  put  a sow  of  Lord  Western’s  black  and  white 
Essex  breed  to  a wild  boar  of  a deep  chesnut  colour ; and 
the  “ pigs  produced  partook  in  appearance  of  both  boar  and 
sow,  but  in  some  the  chesnut  colour  of  the  boar  strongly  pre- 
vailed.” After  the  boar  had  long  been  dead,  the  sow  was 
put  to  a boar  of  her  own  black  and  white  breed — a kind 


Di'.  Alex.  Harvey  on  ‘A  re- 
markable Effect  of  Cross-breeding,’ 
1851.  On  the  ‘ Physiology  of  Breed- 
ing,’ by  Mr.  Reginald  Orton,  1855. 

‘ Intermarriage,’  by  Alex.  Walker, 
1837.  ‘L’Heredite  Naturelle,’  by 
Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  tom.  ii.  p.  58. 
Mr.  W.  Sedgwick  in  ‘British  and 
Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,’ 
1863,  July,  p.  183.  Bronn,  in  his 
‘ Geschichte  der  Natur,’  1843,  B.  ii. 
s.  127,  has  collected  several  cases 
with  respect  to  mares,  sows,  and  dogs. 
Mr.  W.  C.  L.  Martin  (‘History  of 
the  Dog,’  1845,  p.  104)  says  he  can 
personally  vouch  for  the  influence 
of  the  male  parent  on  subsequent 
litters  by  other  dogs.  A French  poet, 
Jacques  Savary,  who  wrote  in  1665 
on  dogs,  was  aware  of  this  singular 
fact.  Dr.  Bowerbank  has  given  us 
the  following  striking  case  : — A black, 
hairless  Barbary  bitch  was  first  ac- 
cidentally impregnated  by  a mongrel 
spaniel  uith  long  brown  hair,  and 
she  produced  five  puppies,  three  of 
which  were  hairless  and  two  covered 
with  short  brown  hair.  The  next 
time  she  was  put  to  a black,  hairless 
Barbary  dog ; “ but  the  mischief 
nad  been  implanted  in  the  mother, 
and  again  about  half  the  litter  looked 
like  pure  Barbarys,  and  the  other 


half  like  the  s/jorf-h aired  progeny  of 
the  first  father.”  1 have  given  in 
the  text  one  case  with  pigs  ; an 
equally  striking  one  has  been  recently 
published  in  Germany,  ‘ lllust. 
Landwirth.  Zeitung,’  1868,  Nov.  17, 
p.  143.  It  is  worth  notice  that 
farmers  in  S.  Brazil  (as  I hear  from 
Fritz  Muller),  and  at  the  C.  of  Good 
Hope  (as  I have  heard  from  two 
trustworthy  persons)  are  convinced 
that  mares  which  have  once  borne 
mules,  when  subsequently  put  to 
horses,  are  extremely  liable  to  pro- 
duce colts,  striped  like  a mule.  Dr. 
Wilckens,  of  Pogarth,  gives  (‘  Jahrbuch 
Lanlwirthschaft,’  ii.  1869,  p.  325) 
a striking  and  analogous  case.  A 
merino  ram,  having  two  small  lappets 
or  flaps  of  skin  on  the  neck,  was  in  the 
winter  of  1861-62  put  to  several 
Merino  ewes,  all  of  whom  bore  lambs 
with  similar  flaps  on  their  necks. 
The  ram  was  killed  in  the  spring  of 
1862,  and  subsequently  to  his  death 
the  ewes  were  put  to  other  Merino 
rams,  and  in  1863  to  Southdown 
rams,  none  of  v/hom  ever  have  neck 
lappets  : nevertheless,  even  as  long 
afterwards  as  1867,  several  of  these 
ewes  produced  lambs  bearing  thase 
appendages. 


CHA.P.  XL 


SUMMAEY  OF  THE  CHAPTEK. 


437 


wliich  is  well  known  to  breed  very  true  and  never  to  show 
any  chesnut  colour, — yet  from  this  union  the  sow  produced 
some  young  pigs  which  were  plainly  marked  with  the  same 
chesnut  tint  as  in  the  first  litter.  Similar  cases  have  so 
frequently  occurred,  that  careful  breeders  avoid  putting  a 
choice  female  of  any  animal  to  an  inferior  male,  on  account 
of  the  injury  to  her  subsequent  progeny  which  may  be 
expected  to  follow. 

Some  physiologists  have  attempted  to  account  for  these 
remarkable  results  from  a previous  impregnation,  by  the 
imagination  of  the  mother  having  been  strongly  affected; 
but  it  will  hereafter  be  seen  that  there  are  very  slight  grounds 
for  any  such  belief.  Other  physiologists  attribute  the  result 
to  the  close  attachment  and  freely  intercommunicating  blood- 
vessels between  the  modified  embryo  and  mother.  But  the 
analogy  from  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  ovarium,  seed- 
coats,  and  other  parts  of  the  mother-plant,  strongly  supports 
the  belief  that  with  animals  the  male  element  acts  directly  on 
the  female,  and  not  through  the  crossed  embryo.  With 
birds  there  is  no  close  connection  between  the  embryo  and 
mother;  yet  a careful  observer,  Dr.  Chapuis,  states that 
with  pigeons  the  infiuence  of  a first  male  sometimes  makes 
itself  perceived  in  the  succeeding  broods ; but  this  statement 
requires  confirmation. 

Conclusion  and  Summary  of  the  Chapter. — The  facts  given  in 
the  latter  half  of  this  chapter  are  well  worthy  of  consideration, 
as  they  show  us  in  how  many  extraordinary  modes  the  union 
of  one  form  with  another  may  lead  to  the  modification  of  the 
seminal  offspring  or  of  the  buds,  afterwards  produced. 

There  is  nothing  surprising  in  the  ofispring  of  species  or 
varieties  crossed  in  the  ordinary  manner  being  modified  ; but 
the  case  of  two  plants  within  the  same  seed,  which  cohere 
and  differ  from  each  other,  is  curious.  When  a bud  is  formed 
after  the  cellular  tissue  of  two  species  or  two  varieties  have 
been  united,  and  it  partakes  of  the  characters  of  both 
parents,  the  case  is  wonderful.  But  I need  not  here  repeat 
what  has  been  so  lately  said  on  this  subject.  We  have 

‘ Le  Pigeon  Voyageur  Beige,’  18G5,  p.  59. 


438 


CONCLUSION  AND  SUMMARY 


Chap.  XL 


also  seen  that  in  the  case  of  plants  the  male  clement  may 
affect  in  a direct  manner  the  tissues  of  the  mother,  and 
with  animals  may  lead  to  the  modification  of  her  future  pro- 
geny. In  the  vegetable  kingdom  the  offspring  from  a cross 
between  two  species  or  varieties,  whether  effected  by  seminal 
generation  or  by  grafting,  often  revert,  to  a greater  or  less 
degree,  in  the  first  or  in  a succeeding  generation,  to  the  two 
parent-forms  ; and  this  i eversion  may  affect  the  whole  flower, 
fruit,  or  leaf-bud,  or  only  the  half  or  a smaller  segment  of  a 
single  organ.  In  some  cases,  however,  such  segregation  of 
character  apparently  depends  on  an  incapacity  for  union  rather 
than  on  reversion,  for  the  flowers  or  fruit  which  are  first  pro- 
duced display  by  segments  the  characters  of  both  parents.  The 
various  facts  here  given  ought  to  be  well  considered  by  any 
one  who  wishes  to  embrace  under  a single  point  of  view  the 
many  modes  of  reproduction  by  gemmation,  division,  and 
sexual  union,  the  reparation  of  lost  parts,  variation,  inheritance, 
reversion,  and  other  such  phenomena.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  second  volume  I shall  attempt  to  connect  these  facts 
together  by  the  hypothesis  of  pangenesis. 

In  the  early  half  of  the  present  chapter  I have  given  a long 
list  of  plants  in  which  through  bud-variation,  that  is,  inde- 
pendently of  reproduction  by  seed,  the  fruit  has  suddenly 
become  modified  in  size,  colour,  flavour,  hairiness,  shape,  and 
time  of  maturity  ; flowers  have  similarly  changed  in  shape, 
colour,  in  being  double,  and  greatly  in  the  character  of  the 
calyx ; young  branches  or  shoots  have  changed  in  colour,  in 
bearing  spines  and  in  habit  of  growth,  as  in  climbing  or  in 
Aveeping;  leaA^es  have  changed  in  becoming  variegated,  in 
shape,  period  of  unfolding,  and  in  their  arrangement  on  the 
axis.  Buds  of  all  kinds,  whether  produced  on  ordinary  branches 
or  on  subterranean  stems,  whether  simple  or  much  modified 
and  supplied  with  a stock  of  nutriment,  as  in  tubers  and  bulbs, 
are  all  liable  to  sudden  variations  of  the  same  general  nature. 

In  the  list,  many  of  the  cases  are  certainly  due  to  reversion 
to  characters  not  acquired  from  a cross,  but  which  Avere 
formerly  present  and  have  since  been  lost  for  a longer  or 
shorter  time ; — as  when  a bud  on  a A^ariegated  plant  produces 
plain  leaves,  or  Avhen  the  A^ariously-coloured  floAvers  of  the 


Chap.  XI- 


OF  THE  CHAPTER. 


439 


ChrysaiitheiTmm  revert  to  the  aboriginal  yellow  tint.  Many 
other  cases  included  in  the  list  are  probably  due  to  the  plants 
being  of  crossed  parentage,  and  to  the  buds  reverting  either 
completely  or  by  segments  to  one  of  the  two  parent-forms, 

We  may  suspect  that  the  strong  tendency  in  the  Chiysan” 
themum  to  produce  by  bud-variation  differently- coloured 
flowers,  results  from  the  varieties  having  been  at  some^time 
intentionally  or  accidentally  crossed ; and  this  is  certainly 
the  case  with  some  kinds  of  Pelargonium.  So  it  may  be  to  a 
large  extent  with  the  bud- varieties  of  the  Dahlia,  and  with 
the  “ broken  colours  ” of  Tulips.  When,  however,  a plant 
reverts  by  bud-variation  to  its  two  parent  forms,  or  to  one  of 
them,  it  sometimes  does  not  revert  perfectly,  but  assumes  a 
somewhat  new  character, — of  which  fact,  instances  have  been 
given,  and  Carriere  gives^^®  another  in  the  cherry. 

Many  cases  of  bud- variation,  however,  cannot  be  attributed 
to  reversion,  but  to  so-called  spontaneous  variability,  as  is 
so  common  with  cultivated  plants  raised  from  seed.  As  a 
single  variety  of  the  Chrysanthemum  has  produced  by  buds 
six  other  varieties,  and  as  one  variety  of  the  gooseberry  has 
borne  at  the  same  time  four  distinct  kinds  of  fruit,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  believe  that  all  these  variations  are  due  to 
reversion.  We  can  hardly  believe,  as  remarked  in  a previous 
chapter,  that  all  the  many  peaches  which  have  yielded 
nectarine-buds  are  of  crossed  parentage.  Lastly,  in  such 
cases  as  that  of  the  moss-rose,  with  its  peculiar  calyx,  and  of 
the  rose  which  bears  opposite  leaves,  in  that  of  the  Imanto- 
phyllum,  &c.,  there  is  no  known  natural  species  or  variety 


It  may  be  worth  while  to  call 
attention  to  the  several  means  by 
which  flowers  and  fruit  become 
striped  or  mottled.  Firstly,  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  another 
variety  or  species,  as  in  the  cases 
given  of  oranges  and  maize.  Secondly, 
i]  crosses  of  the  first  generation, 
uhen  the  colours  of  the  two  parents 
do  not  readily  unite,  as  with  Mirabilis 
and  Dianthus.  Thirdly,  in  crossed 
plants  of  a subsequent  generation 
by  reversion,  through  either  bud  or 
seminal  generation.  Fourthly,  by  re- 


version to  a character  not  originally 
gained  by  a cross,  but  which  had 
Jong  been  lost,  as  with  white-flowered 
vai’ieties,  which  we  shall  hereafter  see 
often  become  striped  with  some  other 
colour.  Lastly,  there  are  cases,  as 
when  peaches  are  produced  with  a 
half  or  quarter  of  the  fruit  like  a 
nectarine,  in  which  the  change  is 
apparently  due  to  mere  variation, 
through  either  bud  or  seminal 
generation. 

155  ‘'Production  des  Varidt^s,  p, 
37. 


440 


CONCLUSION  AND  SUMMARY 


Chap.  XI. 


from  which  the  characters  in  question  could  have  been  derived 
by  a cross.  We  must  attribute  all  such  cases  to  the  appear- 
ance of  absolutely  new  characters  in  the  buds.  The  varieties 
which  have  thus  arisen  cannot  be  distinguished  b}'-  any 
external  character  from  seedlings  ; this  is  notoriously  the  case 
with  the  varieties  of  the  Kose,  Azalea,  and  many  other  plants, 
It  deserves  notice  that  all  the  plants  which  have  yielded 
bud-variations  have  likewise  varied  greatly  by  seed. 

The  plants  which  have  varied  by  buds  belong  to  so  many 
orders  that  we  may  infer  that  almost  every  plant  would  be 
liable  to  variation,  if  placed  under  the  proper  exciting 
conditions.  These  conditions,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  mainly 
depend  on  long-continued  and  high  cultivation;  for  almost 
all  the  plants  in  the  foregoing  list  are  perennials,  and  have 
been  largely  propagated  in  many  soils,  under  different  climates, 
by  cuttings,  offsets,  bulbs,  tubers,  and  especially  by  budding 
or  grafting.  The  instances  of  annuals  varying  by  buds,  or 
producing  on  the  same  plant  differently  coloured  flowers, 
are  comparatively  rare  : Hopkirk  has  seen  this  with  Con- 
volvulus tricolor  ; and  it  is  not  uncommon  with  the  Balsam 
and  annual  Delphinium.  According  to  Sir  E.  Schomburgk, 
plants  from  the  warmer  temperate  regions,  when  cultivated 
under  the  hot  climate  of  St.  Domingo,  are  eminently  liable  to 
bud-variation.  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Sedgwick  that  moss- 
roses  which  have  often  been  taken  to  Calcutta  always  there 
lose  their  mossiness ; but  change  of  climate  is  by  no  means  a 
necessary  contingent,  as  we  see  with  the  gooseberry,  currant, 
and  in  many  other  cases.  Plants  living  under  their  natural 
conditions  are  very  rarely  subject  to  bud-variation.  Varie- 
gated leaves  have,  however,  been  observed  under  such  circum- 
stances ; and  I have  given  an  instance  of  variation  by  buds  on 
an  ash-tree  planted  in  ornamental  grounds,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  such  a tree  can  be  considered  as  living  under  strictly 
natural  conditions.  Gartner  has  seen  white  and  dark  red 
flowers  produced  from  the  same  root  of  the  wild  Achillea 
millefolium ; and  Prof.  Caspary  has  seen  a completely  wild 
Viola  lutea  bearing  flowers  of  two  different  colours  andsizes.^^’ 

156  < Flora  Anomala,’  p.  164.  GeselL  zu  Konigsbevg,’  Band  vi.,  Feb 

‘Sehviften  der  physisch-okon.  3,  1865,  s.  4. 


Chap.  XI. 


OF  THE  CHAPTER. 


441 


As  wild  plants  are  so  rarely  liable  to  bud- variation,  whilst 
highly  cultivated  plants  long  propagated  by  artificial  means 
have  yielded  many  varieties  by  this  form  of  reproduction,  wcj 
are  led  through  a series  such  as  the  following, — namely,  all 
the  eyes  in  the  same  tuber  of  the  potato  varying  in  the  same 
manner, — all  the  fruit  on  a purple  plum-tree  suddenly 
becoming  yellow, — all  the  fruit  on  a double-flowered  almond 
suddenly  becoming  peach  like, — all  the  buds  on  grafted  trees 
being  in  a very  slight  degree  affected  by  the  stock  on  which 
they  have  been  worked, — all  the  flowers  on  a transplanted 
heartsease  changing  for  a time  in  colour,  size,  and  shape, — we 
are  led  by  such  a series  to  look  at  every  case  of  bud- variation 
as  the  direct  result  of  the  conditions  of  life  to  which  the 
plant  has  been  exposed.  On  the  other  hand,  plants  ot  the 
same  variety  may  be  cultivated  in  two  adjoining  beds,  appa- 
rently under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  and  those  in  the  one 
bed,  as  Carriere  insists,^^®  will  produce  man}^  bud-variations, 
and  those  in  the  other  not  a single  one.  Again,  if  we  look  to 
such  cases  as  that  of  a peach-tree  which,  after  having  been  cul- 
tivated by  tens  of  thousands  during  many  years  in  many 
countries,  and  after  having  annually  produced  millions  of 
buds,  all  of  which  have  apparently  been  exposed  to  precisely 
the  same  conditions,  yet  at  last  suddenly  produces  a single 
bud  with  its  whole  character  greatly  transformed,  we  are 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  transformation  stands  in 
no  direct  relation  to  the  conditions  of  life. 

We  have  seen  that  varieties  produced  from  seeds  and  from 
buds  resemble  each  other  so  closely  in  general  appearance 
that  they  cannot  be  distinguished.  Just  as  certain  species 
and  groups  of  species,  when  propagated  by  seed,  are  more 
variable  than  other  species  or  genera,  so  it  is  in  the  case  of 
certain  bud- varieties.  Thus,  the  Queen  of  England  Chry- 
santhemum has  produced  by  this  latter  process  no  less  than 
six,  and  Eollisson’s  Unique  Pelargonium  four  distinct 
varieties ; moss-roses  have  also  produced  several  other  moss- 
roses.  The  Eosaceee  have  varied  by  buds  more  than  any 
other  group  of  plants ; but  this  may  be  in  large  part  due 
to  sc  many  members  having  been  long  cultivated;  but 

158  ‘Production  des  Varietes,’  pp.  58,  70. 


442 


CONCLUSION  AND  SUMMARY 


Chap.  XI, 


within  this  same  group,  the  peach  has  often  varied  by  buds, 
whilst  the  apple  and  pear,  both  grafted  trees  extensively 
cultivated,  have  afforded,  as  far  as  I can  ascertain,  extremely 
few  instances  of  bud- variation. 

The  law  of  analogous  variation  holds  good  with  varieties 
produced  by  buds,  as  with  those  produced  from  seed  : more 
than  one  kind  of  rose  has  sported  into  a moss-rose;  more 
than  one  kind  of  camellia  has  assumed  an  hexagonal  form  ; and 
at  least  seven  or  eight  varieties  of  the  peach  have  produced 
nectarines. 

The  laws  of  inheritance  seem  to  be  nearly  the  same  with 
seminal  and  bud -varieties.  We  know  how  commonly  reversion 
comes  into  play  with  both,  and  it  may  affect  the  whole,  or 
only  segments  of  a leaf,  flower,  or  fruit.  When  the  tendency 
to  reversion  affects  many  buds  on  the  same  tree,  it  becomes 
covered  with  different  kinds  of  leaves,  flowers,  or  fruit ; but 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  such  fluctuating  varieties  have 
generally  arisen  from  seed.  It  is  well  known  that,  out  of  a 
number  of  seedling  varieties,  some  transmit  their  character 
much  more  trul}^  by  seed  than  others  ; so  with  bud- varieties, 
some  retain  their  character  by  successive  buds  more  truly  than 
others ; of  which  instances  have  been  given  with  two  kinds 
of  variegated  Euonymus  and  with  certain  kinds  of  tulips  and 
pelargoniums.  Notwithstanding  the  sudden  production  of 
bud-varieties,  the  characters  thus  acquired  are  sometimes 
capable  of  transmission  by  seminal  reproduction  : Mr.  Rivers 
has  found  that  moss-roses  generally  reproduce  themselves  by 
seed  ; and  the  mossy  character  has  been  transferred  by  crossing 
from  one  species  of  rose  to  another.  I'he  Boston  nectarine, 
which  appeared  as  a bud-variation,  produced  by  seed  a closely 
allied  nectarine.  On  the  other  hand,  seedlings  from  some 
bud-variations  have  proved  variable  to  an  extreme  degree. 
We  have  also  heard,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Salter,  that 
seeds  taken  from  a bi  anch  with  leaves  variegated  through 
bud- variation,  transmit  this  character  very  feebly  ; whilst 
many  plants,  which  were  variegated  as  seedlings,  transmit 
variegation  to  a large  proportion  of  their  progeny. 

Although  I have  been  able  to  collect  a good  many  cases  of 

Carrifere,  ‘ Production  des  Varietes,’  p.  39. 


Chap.  XL 


OF  THE  CHAPTEK. 


443 


bud-variation,  as  shown  in  the  previous  lists,  and  might  pro- 
bably, by  searching  foreign  horticultural  works,  have  col- 
lected very  many  more  cases,  yet  their  total  number  is  as 
nothing  in  comparison  with  that  of  seminal  varieties.  With 
seedlings  raised  from  the  more  variable  cultivated  plants,  the 
variations  are  almost  infinitely  numerous,  but  their  difierences 
are  generally  slight : only  at  long  intervals  of  time  a strongly 
marked  modification  appears.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a 
singular  and  inexplicable  fact  that,  when  plants  vary  by  buds, 
the  variations,  though  they  occur  with  comparative  rarity,  are 
often,  or  even  generally,  strongly  pronounced.  It  struck  me  that 
this  might  perhaps  be  a delusion,  and  that  slight  changes  often 
occurred  in  buds,  but  were  overlooked  or  not  recorded  from 
being  of  no  value.  Accordingly,  I applied  to  two  great 
authorities  on  this  subject,  namely,  to  Mr.  Kivers  with 
respect  to  fruit-trees,  and  to  Mr.  Salter  with  respect  to  flowers. 
Mr.  Eivers  is  doubtful,  but  does  not  remember  having  noticed 
very  slight  variations  in  fruit-buds.  Mr.  Salter  informs  me 
that  with  flowers  such  do  occur,  but,  if  propagated,  they 
generally  lose  their  new  character  in  the  following  year  ; yet 
he  concurs  with  me  that  bud-variations  usually  at  once  assume 
a decided  and  permanent  character.  We  can  hardly  doubt 
that  this  is  the  rule,  when  we  reflect  on  such  cases  as  that 
of  the  peach,  which  has  been  so  carefully  observed,  and  of 
which  such  trifling  seminal  varieties  have  been  propagated,  yet 
this  tree  has  repeatedly  produced  by  bud- variation  nectarines, 
and  only  twice  (as  far  as  I can  learn)  any  other  variety, 
namely,  the  Early  and  Late  Grosse  Mignonne  peaches  ; and 
these  differ  from  the  parent-tree  in  hardly  any  character 
except  the  period  of  maturity. 

To  my  surprise,  I hear  from  Mr.  Salter  that  he  brings  the 
principle  of  selection  to  bear  on  variegated  plants  propagated 
by  buds,  and  has  thus  greatly  improved  and  fixed  several 
varieties.  He  informs  me  that  at  first  a branch  often  pro- 
duces variegated  leaves  on  one  side  alone,  and  that  the  leaves 
are  marked  only  with  an  irregular  edging  or  with  a few  lines 
of  white  and  yellow.  To  improve  and  fix  such  varieties,  he 
finds  it  necessary  to  encourage  the  buds  at  the  bases  of  the 
most  distinctly  marked  leaves,  and  to  propagate  from  them 


444: 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  CHAPTER. 


Chap.  Xl. 


alone.  By  following  with  perseverance  this  })lan  dni-ing 
three  or  four  successive  seasons,  a distinct  and  fixed  variety 
can  generally  he  secured. 

Finally,  the  facts  given  in  this  chapter  prove  in  how  close 
and  remarkable  a manner  the  germ  of  a fertilised  seed  and 
the  small  cellular  mass  forming  a bud,  resemble  each  other  in 
all  their  functions — in  their  power  of  inheritance  with  occa- 
sional reversion, — and  in  their  capacity  for  variation  of  the 
same  general  nature,  in  obedience  to  the  same  laws.  4'his  re- 
semblance, or  rather  identity  of  character,  is  shown  in  the 
most  striking  manner  by  the  fact  that  the  cellular  tissue 
of  one  species  or  variety,  when  budded  or  grafted  on  another, 
may  give  rise  to  a bud  having  an  intermediate  character. 
We  have  seen  that  variability  does  not  depend  on  sexual 
generation,  though  much  more  frequently  its  concomitant  than 
of  bud  reproduction.  We  have  seen  that  bud-variability 
is  not  solely  dependent  on  reversion  or  atavism  to  long-lost 
characters,  or  to  those  formerly  acquired  from  a cross,  but 
appears  often  to  be  spontaneous.  But  when  we  ask  ourselves 
what  is  the  cause  of  any  particular  bud- variation,  we  are  lost 
in  doubt,  being  driven  in  some  cases  to  look  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  external  conditions  of  life  as  sufficient,  and  in 
other  cases  to  feel  a profound  conviction  that  these  have  played 
a quite  subordinate  part,  of  not  more  importance  than  the 
nature  of  the  spark  which  ignites  a mass  of  combustible 
matter. 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


445 


CHAPTER  XII. 

INHERITANCE.  -- 

\^ONr)EEFXJL  NATURE  OP  INHERITANCE — PEDIGREES  OP  OUR  DOMESTICATED 
ANIMALS — INHERITANCE  NOT  DUE  TO  CHANCE — TRIPLING  CHARACTERS 
INHERITED — DISEASES  INHERITED — PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  EYE  INHERITED 
— DISEASES  IN  THE  HORSE — LONGEVITY  AND  VIGOUR — ASYMMETRICAL 
DEVIATIONS  OF  STRUCTURE — I’OLYDACTYLISM  AND  REGROW'TH  OF  SUPER- 
NUMERARY DIGITS  AFTER  AMPUTATION — CASES  OP  SEVERAL  CHILDREN 

SIMILARLY  AFFECTED  FROM  NON  - AFFECTED  PARENTS  WEAK  AND 

FLUCTUATING  INHEKITANCE  : IN  WEEPING  TREES,  IN  DWARFNESS,  COLOUR 

OP  FRUIT  AND  FLOWERS-- COLOUR  OF  HORSES NON-INHERIT4NCE  IN 

CERTAIN  CASES -^INHERITANCE  OP  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS  OVERBORNE 
BY  HOSTILE  CONDITIONS  OP  LIFE,  BY  INCESSANTLY  RECURRING  VARIA- 
BILITY, and  by  reversion — CONCLUSION. 

The  subject  of  inlieritance  is  an  immense  one,  and  has  been 
treated  by  many  authors.  One  Avork  alone,  ‘ He  I’Heredite 
Katurelle,’  by  Hr.  Prosper  Lucas,  runs  to  the  length  of  1562 
pages.  We  must  confine  ourselves  to  certain  points  which  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  general  subject  of  variation,  both 
with  domestic  and  natural  productions.  It  is  obvious  that  a 
variation  which  is  not  inherited  throws  no  light  on  the  deri- 
vation of  species,  nor  is  of  any  service  to  man,  except  in  the 
case  of  perennial  plants,  which  can  be  propagated  by  buds. 

If  animals  and  plants  had  never  been  domesticated,  and 
wild  ones  alone  had  been  observed,  we  should  probably  never 
have  heard  the  saying,* that  “like  begets  like.”  The  propo 
sition  would  have  been  as  self-evident  as  that  all  the  buds  on 
the  same  tree  are  alike,  though  neither  proposition  is  strictly 
true.  For,  as  has  often  been  remarked,  probably  no  two 
individuals  are  identically  the  same.  All  wild  animals  re- 
cognise each  other,  which  shows  that  there  is  some  difference 
between  them ; and  when  the  eye  is  Avell  practised,  the  shep- 
herd knows  each  sheep,  and  man  can  distinguish  a fellow- 
man  out  of  millions  on  millions  of  other  men.  Some  authors 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  production  of  slight 
differences  is  as  much  a necessary  function  of  the  powers  of 


440 


INHERITANCE. 


Cjiap.  XII 


generation,  as  the  production  of  offspring  like  tlieii'  parents. 
This  view,  as  we  shall  see  in  a future  chapter,  is  not  theoreti- 
cally probable,  though  practically  it  holds  good.  The  saying 
that  “ like  begets  like  ” has,  in  fact,  arisen  from  the  perfect 
confidence  felt  by  breeders,  that  a superior  or  inferior  animal 
will  generally  reproduce  its  kind ; but  this  very  superiority 
or  inferiority  shows  that  the  individual  in  question  has 
departed  slightly  from  its  type. 

The  whole  subject  of  inheritance  is  wonderful.  When  a 
new  character  arises,  whatever  its  nature  may  be,  it  generally 
tends  to  be  inherited,  at  least  in  a temporary  and  sometimes 
in  a most  persistent  manner.  What  can  be  more  wonderful 
than  that  I'Ome  trifling  peculiarity,  not  primordially  attached 
to  the  species,  should  be  transmitted  through  the  male  or 
female  sexual  cells,  which  are  so  minute  as  not  to  be  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  and  afterwards  through  the  incessant 
changes  of  a long  course  of  development,  undergone  either  in 
the  womb  or  in  the  egg,  and  ultimately  appear  in  the  offspring 
when  mature,  or  even  when  quite  old,  as  in  the  case  of  certain 
diseases  ? Or  again,  what  can  be  more  wonderful  than  the 
well-ascertained  fact  that  the  minute  ovule  of  a good  milking 
cow  will  produce  a male,  from  whom  a cell,  in  union  with  an 
ovule,  will  produce  a female,  and  she,  when  mature,  will  have 
large  mammary  glands,  yielding  an  abundant  supply  of  milk, 
and  even  milk  of  a particular  quality?  Nevertheless,  the 
real  subject  of  surprise  is,  as  Sir  H.  Holland  has  well  remarked,^ 
not  that  a character  should  be  inherited,  but  that  any  should 
ever  fail  to  be  inherited.  In  a future  chapter,  devoted  to  an 
hypothesis  which  I have  termed  pangenesis,  an  attempt  will 
be  made  to  show  the  means  by  which  characters  of  all  kinds 
are  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation. 

Some  writers,^  who  have  not  attended  to  natural  history, 
have  attempted  to  show  that  the  force  of  inheritance  has  been 
much  exaggerated.  The  breeders  of  animals  would  smile  at 
such  simplicity;  and  if  they  condescended  to  make  any 

* ‘ Medical  Notes  and  Reflections,’  tistics.  See  also  Mr.  Bowen,  Professor 
3rd  edit.,  1855,  p.  267.  of  Moral  Philosophy,  in  ‘ Proc. 

2 Mr.  Buckle,  in  his  ‘ History  of  American  Acad,  of  Sciences,’  vol.  v. 
Civilisation,’  expresses  doubts  on  the  p.  102. 
subject,  owing  to  the  want  of  sta- 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


447 


answer,  might  ask  what  would  be  the  chance  of  winning  a 
prize  if  two  inferior  animals  were  paired  together?  They 
might  ask  whether  the  half- wild  Arabs  were  led  by  theoreti- 
cal notions  to  keep  pedigrees  of  their  horses  ? Why  have 
pedigrees  been  scrupulously  kept  and  published  of  the  Short- 
horn cattle,  and  more  recently  of  the  Hereford  breed  ? Is  it 
ill  illusion  that  these  recently  improved  animals  safely  ^ans- 
mit  their  excellent  qualities  even  when  crossed  with  other 
breeds?  have  the  Shorthorns,  without  good  reason,  been 
purchased  at  immense  prices  and  exported  to  almost  every 
quarter  of  the  globe,  a thousand  guineas  having  been  given 
for  a bull?  With  greyhounds  pedigrees  have  likewise  been 
kept,  and  the  names  of  such  dogs,  as  Snowball,  Major,  &c., 
are  as  well  known  to  coursers  as  those  of  Eclipse  and  Herod 
on  the  turf.  Even  with  the  Gamecodk,  pedigrees  of  famous 
strains  were  formerly  kept,  and  extended  back  for  a century. 
With  pigs,  the  Yorkshire  and  Cumberland  breeders  “ preserve 
and  print  pedigrees and  to  show  how  such  highly-bred 
animals  are  valued,  I may  mention  that  Mr.  Brown,  who 
won  all  the  first  prizes  for  small  breeds  at  Birmingham  in 
1850,  sold  a young  sow  and  boar  of  his  breed  to  Lord  Hucie 
for  43  guineas ; the  sow  alone  was  afterwards  sold  to  the 
Kev.  F.  Thursby  for  65  guineas;  who  writes,  “She  paid  me 
very  well,  having  sold  her  produce  for  300Z.,  and  having  now 
four  breeding  sows  from  her.”  ^ Hard  cash  paid  down,  over 
and  over  again,  is  an  excellent  test  of  inherited  superiority. 
In  fact,  the  whole  art  of  breeding,  from  which  such  great 
results  have  been  attained  during  the  present  century,  depends 
on  the  inheritance  of  each  small  detail  of  structure.  But 
inheritance  is  not  certain ; for  if  it  were,  the  breeder’s  art^ 
would  be  reduced  to  a certainty,  and  there  would  be  little 
scope  left  for  that  wonderful  skill  and  perseverance  shown  by 
the  men  vdio  have  left  an  enduring  monument  of  their  success 
in  the  present  state  of  our  domesticated  animals. 

It  is  hardly  possible,  within  a moderate  compass,  to  impress 

For  greyhounds,  see  Low’s  ‘Do-  Mr.  Sidney’s  edit,  of  ‘ Youatt,  on  the 
intstic  Animals  of  the  British  Islands,’  Big,’  1860,  pp.  11,  22. 

1845,  p.  721.  For  game-fowls,  see  ^ ‘The  Stud  Farm,’  by  Cecil,  p. 
‘The  Poultry  Book,’  by  Mr.  Teget-  39. 
raeier,  1866,  p.  123.  For  pigs,  see 


448 


INHERITANCE. 


Chai>.  XII. 


on  the  mind  of  those  who  have  not  attended  to  the  subject, 
the  full  conviction  of  the  force  of  inheritance  which  is  slowly 
acquired  by  rearing  animals,  by  studying  the  many  treatises 
which  have  been  published  on  the  various  domestic  animals, 
and  by  conversing  with  breeders.  I will  select  a few  facts 
of  the  kind,  which,  as  far  as  I can  judge,  have  most  influenced 
my  own  mind.  With  man  and  the  domestic  animals,  certain 
peculiarities  have  appeared  in  an  individual,  at  rare  intervals, 
or  only  once  or  twice  in  the  history  of  the  world,  but  have 
reappeared  in  several  of  the  children  and  grandchildren. 
Thns  Lambert,  “the  porcupine-man,”  whose  skin  was  thickly 
covered  with  warty  projections,  which  were  periodically 
moulted,  had  all  his  six  children  and  two  grandsons  similarly 
affected.^  The  face  and  body  being  covered  with  long  hair, 
accompanied  by  deficient  teeth  (to  which  I shall  hereafter 
refer),  occurred  in  three  successive  generations  in  a Siamese 
family ; but  this  case  is  not  unique,  as  a woman  ® with  a 
completely  hairy  face  who  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1663, 
and  another  instance  has  recently  occurred.  Colonel  Hall  am 
has  described  a race  of  two-legged  pigs,  “the  hinder  extremi- 
ties being  entirely  wanting and  this  deficiency  was  trans- 
mitted through  three  generations.  In  fact,  all  races 
presenting  any  remarkable  peculiarity,  such  as  solid-hoofed- 
swine,  Mauchamp  sheep,  niata  cattle,  &c.,  are  instances  of  the 
lon2:-continued  inheritance  of  rare  deviations  of  structure. 

When  we  reflect  that  certain  extraordinary  ])eculiarities 
have  thus  appeared  in  a single  individual  out  of  many 
millions,  all  exposed  in  the  same  country  to  the  same  general 
conditions  of  life,  and,  again,  that  the  same  extraordinary 
peculiarity  has  sometimes  appeared  in  individuals  living 
under  widely  different  conditions  of  life,  we  are  driven  to 
conclude  that  such  peculiarities  are  not  directly  due  to  the 
action  of  the  surrounding  conditions,  but  to  unknown  laws 
acting  on  the  organisation  or  constitution  of  the  individual ; 

® ‘ Philosophical  Transactions,’  1755,  the  males  alone, 
p.  23.  1 have  seen  only  second-hand  ® Barbara  Van  Beck,  ligured,  as  I 

accounts  of  the  two  grandsons.  Mr.  am  informed  by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Fox, 
Sedgwick,  in  a paper  to  which  I shall  in  Woodburn’s  ‘Gallery  of  Rare 
hereafter  often  refer,  states  ih&i  four  Portraits,’  1816,  vol.  ii. 

generations  were  affected,  and  in  each  ^ ‘Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,’  1833^  p.  16, 


ClIAl'.  XI 1. 


INHERITANCE. 


44‘J 

— that  their  production  stands  in  hardly  closer  relation  to  the 
conditions  of  life  than  does  life  itself.  If  this  be  so,  and  the 
occurrence  of  the  same  unusual  character  in  the  child  and 
parent  cannot  be  attributed  to  both  having  been  exposed  to 
the  same  unusual  conditions,  then  the  following  problem  is 
worth  consideration,  as  showing  that  the  result  cannot  be 
due.  as  some  authors  have  supposed,  to  mere  coincidence,  but 
must  be  consequent  on  the  members  of  the  same  family 
inheriting  something  in  common  in  their  constitution.  Let 
it  be  assumed  that,  in  a large  population,  a particular  affec- 
tion occurs  on  an  average  in  one  out  of  a million,  so  that  the 
a priori  chance  that  an  individual  taken  at  random  will  be 
so  affected  is  only  one  in  a million.  Let  the  population 
consist  of  sixty  millions,  composed,  we  will  assume,  of  ten 
million  families,  each  containing  six  members.  On  these 
data,  Professor  Stokes  has  calculated  for  me  that  the  odds 
will  be  no  less  than  8333  millions  to  1 that  in  the  ten  million 
families  there  will  not  be  even  a single  family  in  which  one 
parent  and  two  children  will  be  alfected  by  the  peculiarity 
in  question.  But  numerous  instances  could  be  given,  in 
wliich  several  children  have  been  affected  by  the  same  rare 
peculiarity  with  one  of  their  parents  ; and  in  this  case,  more 
especially  if  the  grandchildren  be  included  in  the  calculation, 
the  odds  against  mere  coincidence  become  something  prodi- 
gious, almost  beyond  enumeration. 

In  some  respects  the  evidence  of  inheritance  is  more 
striking  when  we  consider  the  reappearance  of  trifling  pecu- 
liarities. Dr.  Hodgkin  formerly  told  me  of  an  English  family 
in  which,  for  many  generations,  some  members  had  a single 
lock  differently  coloured  from  the  rest  of  the  hair.  I knew 
an  Irish  gentleman,  who,  on  the  right  side  of  his  head,  had  a 
small  white  lock  in  the  midst  of  his  dark  hair ; he  assured 
me  that  his  grandmother  had  a similar  lock,  on  the  same  side, 
and  his  mother  on  the  opposite  side.  But  it  is  superfluous  to 
give  instances ; every  shade  of  expression,  which  may  often 
be  seen  alike  in  parents  and  children,  tells  the  same  story. 
On  what  a curious  combination  of  corporeal  structure,  mental 
character,  and  training,  handwriting  depends ! yet  every  one 
must  have  noted  the  occasional  close  similarity  of  the  hand 
30 


450 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII 


writing  in  father  and  son,  altliough  the  father  had  not  tanghi 
his  son.  A great  collector  of  autographs  assured  nio  that  in  hia 
collection  there  were  several  signatures  of  father  and  son  hardly 
distinguishable  except  by  their  dates.  Hofacker,  in  Germany, 
remarks  on  the  inheritance  of  handwriting ; and  it  has  even 
been  asserted  that  English  boys  when  taught  to  write  in 
Eiance  naturally  cling  to  their  English  manner  of  writing; 
but  for  so  extraordinary  a statement  more  evidence  is  requi- 
site.^ Gait,  gestures,  voice,  and  general  bearing  are  all 
inherited,  as  the  illustrious  Hunter  and  Sir  A.  Carlisle  have 
insisted.®  My  father  communicated  to  mo  some  striking 
instances,  in  one  of  which  a man  died  during  the  early  infancy 
of  his  son,  and  my  father,  who  did  not  see  this  son  until 
grown  up  and  out  of  health,  declared  that  it  seemed  to  him 
as  if  his  old  friend  had  risen  from  the  grave,  with  all  his 
highly  peculiar  habits  and  manners.  Peculiar  manners  pass 
into  tricks,  and  several  instances  could  be  given  of  their 
inheritance  ; as  in  the  case,  often  quoted,  of  the  father  vduj 
generally  slept  on  his  back,  with  his  right  leg  crossed  over 
the  left,  and  whose  daughter,  whilst  an  infant  in  the  cradle, 
followed  exactly  the  same  habit,  though  an  attempt  was 
made  to  cure  her.^®  I will  give  one  instance  which  has 
fallen  under  my  ov/n  observation,  and  which  is  curious  from 
being  a trick  associated  with  a peculiar  state  of  mind,  namely, 
pleasureable  emotion.  A boy  had  the  singular  habit,  when 
pleased,  of  rapidl}^  moving  his  fingers  parallel  to  each  other, 
and,  when  much  excited,  of  raising  both  hands,  with  the 
fingers  still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  his  face  on  a level  with 
the  eyes ; when  this  boy  was  almost  an  old  man,  he  could  still 
hardly  resist  this  trick  when  much  pleased,  but  from  its 
absurdity  concealed  it.  He  had  eight  children.  Of  these,  a 
girl,  when  pleased,  at  the  age  of  four  and  a half  years,  moved 
her  fingers  in  exactly  the  same  way,  and  Avhat  is  still  odder, 
when  much  excited,  she  raised  both  her  hands,  with  her 

* Hofiicker,  ‘ Ueber  die  Eigenschaf-  Carlisle,  ‘Phil.  Transact.,’  1814,  p, 
len,’  &c.,  1828,  s.  34.  With  respect  94. 

to  France,  Report  by  Pariset  in  Girou  de  Buzareignues,  ‘ De  la 

‘Comptes  Rendus,’  1847,  p.  592.  Generation,’  p.  282.  I have  given  an 

® Hunter,  as  quoted  in  Harlan’s  analogous  case  in  my  book  on  ‘ The 

‘ Med.  Researches,’  p.  530.  Sir  A.  Expression  of  the  Emotions.’ 


ClIAP.  XII. 


INHEKITANCE. 


451 


fingers  still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  her  face,  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  her  father  had  done,  and  sometimes  even 
still  continued  to  do  so  when  alone,  I never  heard  of  any  one, 
excepting  this  one  man  and  liis  little  daughter,  wiio  had  this 
strange  habit ; and  certainly  imitation  was  in  this  instance 
out  of  the  question. 

Some  writers  have  doubted  whether  those  complex  mental 
attributes,  on  which  genius  and  talent  depend,  are  inherited, 
even  when  both  parents  are  thus  endowed.  But  he  who  will 
study  Mr.  Galton’s  able  work  on  ‘ Hereditary  Genius  ’ will  have 
his  doubts  allayed. 

Unfortunately^  it  matters  not,  as  far  as  inheritance  is  con- 
cerned, how  injurious  a quality  or  structure  may  be  if  com- 
patible with  life.  No  one  can  read  the  many  treatises  on 
hereditary  disease  and  doubt  this.  The  ancients  were  strongly 
of  this  opinion,  or,  as  Eanchin  expresses  it,  Omnes  Grcuci,  Arabes, 
et  Laiini  in  eo  consentiunt.  A long  catalogue  could  be  given  of 
all  sorts  of  inherited  malformations  and  of  predisposition  to 
various  diseases.  With  gout,  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  cases 
observed  in  hospital  practice  are,  according  to  Dr.  Garrod, 
inherited,  and  a greater  percentage  in  private  practice.  Every- 
one knows  how  often  insanity  runs  in  families,  and  some  of 
the  cases  given  by  Mr.  Sedgwick  are  awful, — as  of  a surgeon, 
whose  brother,  father,  and  four  paternal  uncles  were  all 
insane,  the  latter  dying  by  suicide ; of  a Jew,  whose  father, 
mother,  and  six  brothers  and  sisters  were  all  mad  ; and  in 
some  other  cases  several  members  of  the  same  family,  during 
three  or  four  successive  generations,  have  committed  suicide. 
Striking  instances  have  been  recorded  of  epilepsy,  consump- 


The  works  which  I have  read 
and  found  most  useful  are  Dr.  Prosper 
Lucas’s  great  work,  ‘Traile  de 
I’Heredite  Xaturelle,’  1847;  Mr.  W. 
Sedgwick,  in  ‘ British  and  Foreign 
Medico-Chirurg.  Review,’  April  and 
July,  1861,  and  April  and  July,  i860  : 
Dr.  Garrod  on  Gout  is  quoted  in  these 
articles.  Sir  Henry  Holland,  ‘Medical 
Notec  and  Reflections,'  8rd  edit.  1855. 
Piorry,  ‘ De  I’Heredite  dans  lea 
Maladies,’  1840.  Adams,  ‘A  Philo- 


sophical Treatise  on  Hereditary  Pe- 
culiarities,’ 2nd  edit.,  1815.  Essay 
on  ‘Hereditary  Diseases,’  by  Dr.  J. 
Steinan,  1843.  See  Paget,  in  ‘Medical 
Times,’  1857,  p.  192,  on  the  Inheri- 
tance of  Cancer ; Dr.  Gould,  in 
‘ Proc.  of  American  Acad,  of  Sciences,’ 
Nov.  8,  1853,  gives  a curious  case  ol 
hereditary  bleeding  in  four  genera- 
tions. Harlan,  ‘ Medical  Researches, 
p.  593. 


452 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XU 


tidn,  asthma,  stone  in  the  bladder,  cancer,  profuse  l)lecding 
from  the  slightest  injuries,  of  the  mother  not  giving  milk,  and 
of  ball  parturition  being  inherited.  In  this  latter  respect  I 
ma}?-  mention  an  odd  case  given  by  a good  observer,^''^  in 
which  the  fault  lay  in  the  offspring,  and  not  in  the  mother : 
ill  a part  of  Yorkshire  the  farmers  continued  to  select  cattle 
with  large  hind-quarters,  until  they  made  a strain  called 
“ Uutch-buttocked,”  and  “ the  monstrous  size  of  the  buttocks 
of  the  calf  was  frequently  fatal  to  the  cow,  and  numbers  of 
cows  were  annually  lost  in  calving.” 

Instead  of  giving  numerous  details  on  various  inherited  malform- 
ations and  diseases,  I will  confine  myself  to  one  organ,  that  which  is 
the  most  complex,  delicate,  and  probably  best-known  in  the  human 
frame,  namely,  the  eye,  with  its  accessory  parts.^^  To  begin  with  the 
latter  : I have  received  an  account  of  a family  in  which  one  parent 
and  the  children  are  affected  by  drooping  eyelids,  in  so  peculiar  a 
manner,  that  they  cannot  see  without  throwing  their  heads  back- 
wards. Mr.  Wade,  of  Wakefield,  has  given  me  an  analogous  case  of 
a man  who  had  not  his  eyelids  thus  affected  at  birth,  nor  owed 
their  state,  as  far  as  was  known,  to  inheritance,  but  they  began  to 
droop  whilst  he  was  an  infant  after  suffering  from  fits,  and  he  has 
transmitted  the  affection  to  two  out  of  his  three  children,  as , was 
evident  in  the  photographs  of  the  whole  family  sent  to  me  together 
with  this  account.  Sir  A.  Carlisle  specifies  a pendulous  fold  to 
the  eyelids,  as  inherited.  “ In  a family,”  says  Sir  H.  Holland,^''’ 
where  the  father  had  a singular  elongation  of  the  upper  eyelid, 
seven  or  eight  children  w^ere  born  with  the  same  deformity ; two  or 
three  other  children  having  it  not.”  Many  persons,  as  I hear  from 
Sir  J.  Paget,  have  two  or  three  hairs  in  their  eyebrows  much  longer 
than  the  others ; and  even  so  trifling  a peculiarity  as  this  certainly 
runs  in  families. 

With  respect  to  the  eye  itself,  the  highest  authority  in  England, 
Mr.  Bowman,  has  been  so  kind  as  to  give  me  the  following  remarks 
on  certain  inherited  imperfections.  First,  hypermetroxjia,  or 
morbidly  long  sight : in  this  affection,  the  organ,  instead  of  being 
spherical,  is  too  flat  from  front  to  back,  and  is  often  altogether  too 
small,  so  that  the  retina  is  brought  too  forward  for  the  focus  of  the 
humours ; consequently  a convex  glass  is  required  for  clear  vision 


Marsnall,  quoted  by  Youatt  in 
liis  work  on  Cattle,  p.  284. 

Almost  any  other  organ  might 
have  been  selected.  For  instance, 
Mr,  J.  Tomes,  ‘System  of  Dental 
Surgery,’  2nd  edit.,  1873,  p.  114, 
gives  many  instances  with  teeth,  and 


others  have  been  communicated  to 
me. 

‘Philosoph.  Transact.,’  1814,  j». 
94. 

‘ Medical  Notes  and  Reflections”, 
3rd  edit,,  p,  33. 


Ohap.  XII. 


INHERIT  AXCE. 


>453 


of  near  objects,  and  frequently  even  of  distant  ones.  This  state 
occuis  congenitally,  or  at  a very  early  age,  often  in  several  children 
of  the  same  family,  where  one  of  the  parents  has  presented  it.^*^ 
Secondly,  myopia,  or  short-sight,  in  which  the  eye  is  egg-shaped  and 
too  long  from  front  to  back ; the  retina  in  this  case  lies  behind  the 
focus,  and  is  therefore  fitted  to  see  distinctly  only  very  near  objects. 
This  condition  is  not  commonly  congenital,  but  comeson  in  youth, 
the  liability  to  it  being  well  known  to  be  transmissible  from  parent 
to  child.  The  change  from  the  spherical  to  theovoidal  shape  seems 
the  immediate  consequence  of  something  like  inflammation  of  the 
coats,  under  which  they  yield,  and  there  is  ground  for  believing  that 
it  may  often  originate  in  causes  acting  on  the  individual  affected,^^ 
and  may  thenceforward  become  transmissible.  When  both  parents 
are  myopic  Mr.  Bowman  has  observed  the  hereditary  tendency  in 
this  direction  to  be  heightened,  and  some  of  the  children  to  be 
myopic  at  an  earlier  age  or  in  a higher  degree  than  their  parents. 
Thirdly,  squinting  is  a familiar  example  of  hereditary  transmission : 
it  is  frequently  a result  of  such  optical  defects  as  have  been  above 
mentioned;  but  the  more  primary  and  uncomplicated  forms  of  it 
are  also  sometimes  in  a marked  degree  transmitted  in  a family. 
Fourthly,  Cataract,  or  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens,  is  commonly 
observed  in  persons  whose  parents  have  been  similarly  affected,  and 
often  at  an  earlier  age  in  the  children  than  in  the  parents.  Occasion- 
ally more  than  one  child  in  a family  is  thus  afflicted,  one  of  whose 
parents  or  other  relations,  presents  the  senile  form  of  the  complaint. 
When  cataract  affects  several  members  of  a family  in  the  same 
generation,  it  is  often  seen  to  commence  at  about  the  same  age  in 
each  : e.g.,  in  one  family  several  infants  or  young  persons  may  suffer 
from  it ; in  another,  several  persons  of  middle  age.  Mr,  Bowman 
also  informs  me  that  he  has  occasionally  seen,  in  several  members  of 
the  same  family,  various  defects  in  either  the  right  or  left  eye ; and 
Mr.  White  Cooper  has  often  seen  peculiarities  of  vision  confined  to 
one  eye  reappearing  in  the  same  eye  in  the  offspring.^® 

The  following  cases  are  taken  from  an  able  paper  by  Mr.  W. 
Fedgwick,  and  from  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas.^®  Amaurosis,  either  con- 
genital or  coming  on  late  in  life,  and  causing  total  blindness,  is  often 
inherited;  it  has  been  observed  in  three  successive  generations. 
Congenital  absence  of  the  iris  has  likewise  been  transmitted  for 


This  affection,  as  I hear  from 
Mr,  Bowman,  has  been  ably  described 
and  spoken  of  as  hereditary  by  Dr. 
bonders  of  Utrecht,  whose  work  was 
published  in  English  by  the  Sydenham 
Society  in  1864. 

M.  Giraud-Teulbn  has  recently 
collected  abundant  statistical  evidence, 
‘ ffevue  des  Cours  Scientifiques,’  Sept., 
1870,  p.  625,  showing  that  short 


sight  is  due  to  the  habit  of  viewing 
objects  from  a short  distance,  e'est 
Ic  tratail  assidu,  de  pres. 

**  Quoted  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer, 
‘ Principles  of  Biology,’  vol.  i.  p.  244, 

19  i British  and  Eoreign  Medico- 
Chirurg.  Review,’  April,  1861,  pp, 
482-6  ; ‘ L’Hered.  Nat.,’  tom.  i.  pp 
391-408. 


454 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII 


three  generations,  a cleft-iris  for  four  generations,  being  limited  in 
this  latter  ease  to  the  males  of  the  family.  Opacity  of  tlie  cornea 
and  congenital  smallness  of  the  eyes  have  been  inherited.  Portal 
records  a curious  case,  in  which  a father  and  two  sons  were  rendered 
blind,  whenever  the  head  was  bent  downwards,  apparently  owing  to 
the  crystalline  lens,  with  its  capsule,  slipping  tlirough  an  unusually 
large  pupil  into  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye.  Day-blindness,  or  im- 
perfect vision  under  a bright  light,  is  inherited,  as  is  night-blindness, 
or  an  incapacity  to  see  except  under  a strong  light : a case  has  been 
recorded,  by  M.  Cunier,  of  this  latter  defect  having  affected  eighty- 
five  members  of  the  same  family  during  six  generations.  The 
singular  incapacity  of  distinguishing  colours,  which  has  been  called 
Daltonism,  is  notoriously  hereditary,  and  has  been  traced  through 
five  generations,  in  which  it  was  confined  to  the  female  sex. 

With  respect  to  the  colour  of  the  iris : deficiency  of  colouring 
matter  is  well  known  to  be  hereditary  in  albinoes.  The  iris  of  one 
eye  being  of  different  colour  from  that  of  the  other,  and  the  iris 
being  spotted,  are  cases  which  have  been  inherited.  Mr.  Sedgwick 
gives,  in  addition,  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Osborne,^®  the  following 
curious  instance  of  strong  inheritance  : a family  of  sixteen  sons  and 
five  daughters  all  had  eyes  ‘‘  resembling  in  miniature  the  markings 
on  the  back  of  a tortoiseshell  cat.”  The  mother  of  this  large  family 
had  three  sisters  and  a brother  all  similarly  marked,  and  they 
derived  this  peculiarity  from  their  mother,  who  belonged  to  a 
family  notorious  for  transmitting  it  to  their  posterity. 

Finally,  Dr.  Lucas  emphatically  remarks  that  there  is  not  one 
single  faculty  of  the  eye  which  is  not  subject  to  anomalies;  and  not 
one  which  is  not  subjected  to  the  principle  of  inheritance.  Mr. 
Bovvinan  agrees  with  the  general  truth  of  this  proposition  ; ^hich  of 
course  does  not  imply  that  all  malformations  are  necessarily 
inherited;  this  would  not  even  follow  if  both  parents  were  affected 
by  an  anomaly  which  in  most  cases  was  transmissible. 

Even  if  no  single  fact  had  been  known  with  resjoect  to  the 
inheritance  of  disease  and  malformations  by  man,  the  evidence 
would  have  been  ample  in  the  case  of  the  horse.  And  this 
might  have  been  expected,  as  horses  breed  much  <piicker  than 
man,  are  matched  with  care,  and  are  highly  valued.  1 have 
consulted  many  works,  and  the  unanimity  of  the  belief  by 
veterinaries  of  all  nations  in  the  transmission  of  various 
morbid  tendencies  is  surprising.  Authors  who  have  had  wide 
experience  give  in  detail  many  singular  cases,  and  assert  that 
contracted  feet,  with  the  numerous  contingent  evils,  of  ring- 
bones, curbs,  splints,  spavin,  founder  and  weakness  of  the  front 

Dr.  O'borue,  Pres,  of  Roy.'il  this  case  in  the  ‘ Dublin  Medical 
College  of  Phys.  in  Ireland,  published  Journal,’  for  1835. 


Chap.  XIL 


INHERITANCE. 


455 


legs,  roaring  or  broken  and  thick  wind,  melanosis,  specific 
ophthalmia,  and  blindness  (the  great  French  veterin  ary  Huzard 
going  so  far  as  to  sa}^  that  a blind  race  could  soon  be  formed), 
crib-biting,  jibbing  and  ill- temper,  are  all  plainly  hereditary. 
Yoiiatt  sums  up  by  saying  “ there  is  scarcely  a malady  to 
wdiich  the  horse  is  subject  which  is  not  hereditary and  M. 
Bernard  adds  that  the  doctrine  “ that  there  is  scarcely  a 
disease  which  does  not  run  in  the  stock,  is  gaining  new 
advocates  every  day.”  So  it  is  in  regard  to  cattle,  with 
consumption,  good  and  bad  teeth,  fine  skin,  &c.  &c.  But 
enough,  and  more  than  enough,  has  been  said  on  disease. 
Andrew  Knight,  from  his  own  experience,  asserts  that  disease 
is  hereditary  with  plants ; and  this  assertion  is  endorsed  by 

Lindley.22 

Seeing  how  hereditary  evil  qualities  are,  it  is  fortunate 
that  good  health,  vigour,  and  longevity  are  equally  inherited. 
It  was  formerly  a well-known  practice,  when  annuities  were 
purchased  to  be  received  during  the  life-time  of  a nominee,  to 
search  out  a person  belonging  to  a family  of  which  many 
members  had  lived  to  extreme  old  age.  As  to  the  inheritance 
of  vigour  and  endurance,  the  English  race-horse  ohers  an  ex- 
cellent instance.  Eclipse  begot  334,  and  King  Herod  497 
winners.  A “ cock-tail  ” is  a horse  not  purely  bred,  but  with 
only  one-eighth,  or  one-sixteenth  impure  blood  in  his  veins, 
yet  very  few  instances  have  ever  occurred  of  such  horses 
having  won  a great  race.  They  are  sometimes  as  fleet  for 
short  distances  as  thoroughbreds,  but  as  Mr.  Eobson,  the 


Tliese  various  statements  are 
taken  from  the  following  works  and 
papers  : — Youatt  on  ‘ The  Horse,’  pp. 
of),  220.  Lawrence,  ‘ The  Horse,’  p. 
do.  Karkeek,  in  an  excellent  paper 
in  ‘ Card.  Chronicle,’  1853,  p.  92. 
Mr.  Burke,  in  ‘ .lournal  of  R.  Agricul. 
Soc.  of  England,’  vol.  v.  p.  511. 
‘ Encyclt)]).  of  Rural  Sports,  p.  279, 
Girou  de  Buzareignues,  ‘ Philosoph. 
Phys.,’  j).  215.  See  following  papers 
in  ‘ The  Veterinary Roberts,  in  vol. 
ii.  p,  14-4;  M.  Marrimpoey,  vol.  ii.  p. 
387 ; Mr.  Karkeek,  vol.  iv.  p.  5 ; 
Youatt  on  Goitre  in  Dogs,  vol.  v.  p. 


483:  Youatt  in  vol.  vi.  pp.  66,  348, 
412 ; ]\I.  Bernard,  vol.  xi.  p.  539 ; 
Dr.  Samesreuther,  on  Cattle,  in  vol. 
xii.  p.  181;  Percivall,  in  vol.  xiii.  p. 
47.  With  respect  to  blindness  in 
horses,  see  also  a whole  row  of 
authorities  in  Dr.  P.  Lucas’s  great 
work,  tom.  i.  ]>.  399.  Mr.  Baker  in 
‘The  V'eteriuary,’  vol.  xiii.  p.  721, 
gives  a strong  case  of  hereditary 
imperfect  vision  and  of  jibbing. 

Knighton  ‘The  Culture  of  the 
Apple  and  Pear,’  p.  34.  Liudley’s 
‘ Horticulture,’ p.  180. 


INHERITANCE. 


ClIAI'.  Xll 


45() 

great  trainer,  asserts,  they  are  deficient  in  wind,  and  cannot 
keep  np  the  pace.  Mr.  Lawrence  also  reinarlcs,  “ perhaps  no 
instance  lias  ever  occurred  of  a three-part-bred  horse  saving 
his  ‘ distance  ’ in  running  two  miles  with  thoroughbred  racers.” 
It  has  been  stated  by  Cecil,  that  when  unknown  horses,  whose 
parents  were  not  celebrated,  have  unexpectedly  won  great 
races,  as  in  the  case  of  Priam,  they  can  always  be  proved  to 
be  descended,  on  both  sides,  through  many  generations,  from 
first-rate  ancestors.  On  tlio  Continent,  Baron  Cameronn 
challenges,  in  a German  veterinary  periodical,  the  opponents 
of  the  English  race-horse  to  name  one  good  horse  on  the 
Continent,  which  has  not  some  English  race-blood  in  his 
veins.^^ 

With  respect  to  the  transmission  of  the  many  slight,  but 
infinitely  diversified  characters,  by  which  the  domestic  races 
of  animals  and  plants  are  distinguished,  nothing  need  be  said  ; 
for  the  veiy  existence  of  persistent  races  ^^I’oclaims  the  power 
of  inheritance. 

A few  special  cases,  however,  deserve  some  consideration. 
It  might  have  been  anticipated,  that  deviations  from  the  law 
of  symmetry  would  not  have  been  inherited.  But  Anderson''^^ 
states  that  a rabbit  produced  in  a litter  a young  animal 
having  only  one  ear ; and  from  this  animal  a breed  was 
formed  which  steadily  produced  one-eared  rabbits.  He  also 
mentions  a bitch  with  a single  leg  deficient,  and  she  produced 
several  puppies  with  the  same  deficiency.  From  Hofacker’s 
account, it  appears  that  a one-horned  stag  was  seen  in  1781 
in  a forest  in  Germany,  in  1788  two,  and  afterwards,  from 
3"ear  to  year,  many  were  observed  with  only  one  horn  on  the 
right  side  of  the  head.  A cow  lost  a horn  by  suppuration,'-^*" 
and  she  produced  three  calves  which  had  on  the  same  side  of 
the  head,  instead  of  a horn,  a small  bony  lump  attached 


These  statements  are  taken  from 
the  following  works  in  order: — Youatt 
on  • The  Horse,’  p.  48;  Mr.  Darvill, 
in  ‘The  Veterinary,’  vol.  viii.  p.  50. 
With  respect  to  Robson,  see  ‘The 
Veterinary,’  vol.  iii.  p.  580;  Mr. 
Lawrence  on  ‘The  Horse,’  1829,  p.  9; 
= The  Stud  Farm,’  by  Cecil,  1851 


Baron  Cameronn,  quoted  in  ‘ The 
Veterinary,’  vol.  x.  p.  500. 

2-*  ‘ Recreations  in  Agriculture  and 
Nat.  Hist.,’  vol.  i.  p.  68. 

‘ Ueber  die  Eigenschaften,’  &c., 
1828,  s.  107. 

Bronn’s  ‘ Geschichte  der  Nalur, 
Band  ii.  s.  132. 


CllAP.  Xli. 


INHEKITANCE. 


457 


merely  to  the  sldn ; hnt  we  here  encroach  on  the  snhject  of 
inherited  mutilations.  A man  who  is  left-handed,  and  a 
shell  in  which  the  spire  turns  in  the  wrong  directions,  are 
departures  from  the  normal  asymmetrical  condition,  and  they 
are  well-known  to  he  inherited. 

Polydactylif^m . — Supernumerary  fingers  and  toes  are  eminently 
liable,  as  various  authors  have  insisted,  to  be  inherited.  Poly- 
dactylism  graduates  by  multifarious  steps  from  a mere  cutaneous 
appendage,  not  including  any  bone,  to  a double  hand.  But  an  ad- 
ditional digit,  suxjported  on  a metacarpal  bone,  and  furnished  with 
all  the  proper  muscles,  nerves,  and  vessels,  is  sometimes  so  perfect, 
that  it  escapes  detection,  unless  the  fingers  are  actually  counted. 
Occasionally  there  are  several  supernumerary  digits;  but  usually 
only  one,  making  the  total  number  six.  This  one  may  be  attached 
to  the  inner  oi'  outer  margin  of  the  hand,  representing  either  a 
thumb  or  little  finger,  the  latter  being  the  more  frequent.  Gene- 
rally, through  the  law  of  correlation,  both  hands  and  both  feet  are 
similarly  affected.  Dr.  Burt  Wilder  has  tabulated^*  a large  number 
of  cases,  and  finds  that  supernumerary  digits  are  more  common  on 
the  hands  than  on  the  feet,  and  that  men  are  alfected  often er  than 
women.  Both  these  facts  can  be  ex^Dlained  on  two  principles  which 
seem  generally  to  hold  good ; firstly,  that  of  two  parts,  the  more 
specialised  one  is  the  more  variable,  and  the  arm  is  more  highly 
specialised  than  the  leg;  and  secondly  that  male  animals  are  more 
variable  than  females. 

The  presence  of  a greater  number  of  digits  than  five  is  a great 
anomaly,  for  this  number  is  not  normally  exceeded  by  any  existing 
mammal,  bird,  or  reptile.  Nevertheless,  supernumerary  digits  are 
strongly  inherited ; they  have  been  transmitted  through  five  genera- 
tions ; and  in  some  cases,  after  disappearing  for  one,  two,  or  even 
three  generations,  have  reappeared  through  reversion.  These  facts 
are  rendered,  as  Professor  Huxley  has  observed,  more  remarkable 
from  its  being  known  in  most  cases  that  the  affected  person  has  not 
married  one  similarly  affected.  In  such  cases  the  child  of  the  fifth 
generation  would  have  only  l-32nd  part  of  the  blood  of  his  first 
scdigitated  ancestor.  Other  cases  are  rendered  remarkable  by  the 
affection  gathering  force,  as  Dr.  Struthers  has  shown,  in  each 
generation,  though  in  each  the  affected  person  married  one  not 
affected ; moreover,  such  additional  digits  are  often  amputated  soon 
after  birth,  and  can  seldom  have  Deen  strengthened  by  use.  Dr. 


V^rolik  has  discussed  this  point 
at  full  length  in  a work  published 
in  Dutch,  t'roin  which  Sir  J,  Paget 
Has  kindly  translated  for  me  passages. 
See,  also,  Isidore  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire’s 
Glist.  des  Anomalies,’  1832  tom.  i 


p.  684. 

‘ Massacliusetts  Medical  Society,’ 
voi.  ii.  No.  3 ; and  ‘ Proc.  Boston 
Soc.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol.  xiv..  1871,  p, 
154. 


458 


INHERITANCE. 


CiiAr.  X IL 


Strutliers  gives  the  following  instance:  in  the  first  generation  an 
Htlditional  digit  a])pcared  on  one  liand;  in  the  second,  on  botli 
hands;  in  the  third,  tliree  brothers  had  both  hands,  and  one  of  tlio 
brothers  a foot  affected;  and  in  the  fonrtli  generation  all  four  limbs 
were  affected.  Yet  we  must  not  over-estimate  the  force  of  inherit- 
ance. Dr.  Struthers  asserts  that  cases  of  non-inheritaiice  and  of  tlio 
first  ai^pearance  of  additional  digits  in  unaffected  families  are  much 
more  frequent  than  cases  of  inheritance.  Many  other  deviations  of 
structure,  of  a nature  almost  as  anomalous  as  supernumerary  digits, 
such  as  deficient  phalanges,'^^  thickened  joints,  crooked  fingers,  &c., 
are,  in  like  manner,  strongly  inherited,  and  are  equally  subject  to 
intermission,  togetlier  with  reversion,  though  in  such  cases  there 
is  no  i-v-ason  to  suppose  that  both  parents  had  been  similarly 
affected.^" 

Additional  digits  have  been  observed  in  negroes  as  well  as  in 
other  races  of  man,  and  in  several  of  the  lower  animals,  and  have 
been  inherited.  Six  toes  have  been  described  on  the  hind  feet  of  the 
newt  (Sa/umandiu  cridata),  and  are  said  to  have  occurred  with  the 
frog.  It  deserves  notice,  that  the  six-toed  newt,  though  adult, 
preserved  some  of  its  larval  characters;  for  part  of  the  hyoidal 
apparatus,  which  is  properly  absorbed  during  the  act  of  metamor- 
phosis, was  retained.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  in  the  case  of  man 
various  structures  in  an  embryonic  or  arrested  state  of  development, 
such  as  a cleft-palate,  bifid  uterus,  Ac.,  are  often  accompanied  by 
]'>olydactylism.'^‘  Six  toes  on  the  liinder  feet  are  known  to  have 
been  iuherited  for  three  generations  of  cats.  In  several  breeds  of 
the  fowl  the  liinder  toe  is  double,  and  is  generally  transmitted 
truly,  as  is  well  shown  when  Dorkings  are  crossed  with  common 


Dr  J.  W.  Ogle  gives  a case  of 
the  inheritance  of  deficient  phalanges 
during  four  generations.  He  adds 
references  to  various  recent  papers  on 
inheritance,  ‘ Brit,  and  For.  Med.- 
Chirurg.  lieview,’  Ap.  1872. 

For  these  several  statements,  see 
Dr.  Struthers,  ‘ Edinburgh  New  Phil. 
Journal,’  July,  18Gd,  especially  on 
intermissions  in  the  line  of  descent. 
Prof.  Huxley,  ‘ Lectures  on  our  Know- 
ledge of  Organic  Nature,’  1863,  ]). 
97.  With  )es|)ect  to  inheritance,  see 
Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  ‘ L’Heredite  Nat.,’ 
tom.  i.  p.  325.  Isid.  Geotlroy,  ‘ Amun.,’ 
tom.  i.  p.  701.  Sir  A.  Carlisle,  in 
‘Phil.  Transact:,’  1814,  p.  94.  A. 
Walker,  on  ‘ lutermai-riage,’  1838, 
p.  140,  gives  a case  of  five  genera- 
tions ; a.s  does  Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  ‘ Brit, 
and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurg.  Review,’ 


April,  1863,  p.  462.  On  the  inheri- 
tance of  otlier  anomalies  in  the  ex- 
tremities, see  Dr.  H.  Dobell,  in  vol. 
xlvi.  of  ‘i\ledico-Chirurg.Transactions,’ 
1863;  also  Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  op.  cit., 
April,  1863,  p.  460.  With  respect  tc 
additional  digits  in  the  negro,  see 
Prichard,  ‘ Physical  History  of  Man- 
kind.’ Dr.  Dielfenbach  (‘Jour.  Royal 
Geograph.  Soc.,’  1841,  p.  208)  says 
this  anomaly  is  not  uncommon  witli 
the  Polynesians  of  the  Chatham 
Islands;  and  I have  heard  of  several 
cases  with  Hindus  ami  Arabs. 

hleckel  and  Isid  G.  St.  Hilaire 
insist  on  this  fact.  See,  also  iM.  A. 
Roujou,  ‘ Sur  quelques  Analogies  du 
Type  Humain,’  j).  61  ; published,  1 
believe,  in  the  ‘ Journal  of  the  Authro- 
polog.  Soc.  of  Paris,’  Jan.  1872. 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


45D 


four-toed  breeds.^^  With  animals  which  have  properly  less  than 
five  digits,  the  number  is  sometimes  increased  to  five,  especially  on 
the  front  legs,  though  rarely  carried  beyond  that  number;  but  this 
is  due  to  the  development  of  a digit  already  existing  in  a more  or 
less  rudimentary  state.  Thus,  the  dog  has  properly  four  toes  behind, 
but  in  the  larger  breeds  a fifth  toe  is  commonly,  though  not  per- 
fectly, developed.  Horses,  which  properly  have  one  toe  alone  fully 
developed  with  rudiments  of  the  others,  have  been  described  with 
each  foot  bearing  two  or  three  small  separate  hoofs : analogous  facts 
liave  been  noticed  with  cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs.^^ 

There  is  a famous  case  described  by  Mr.  White  of  a child,  three 
years  old,  with  a thumb  double  from  the  first  joint.  He  removed 
the'  lesser  thumb,  which  was  furnished  with  a nail ; but  to  his 
astonishment  it  grew  again  and  reproduced  a nail.  The  child  was 
then  taken  to  an  eminent  London  surgeon,  and  the  newly-grown 
thumb  was  removed  by  its  socket-joint,  but  again  it  grew  and  re- 
produced a nail.  Hr.  Struthers  mentions  a case  of  the  partial 
re-growth  of  an  additional  thumb,  amputated  when  a child  was 
three  months  old ; and  the’  late  Dr.  Falconer  communicated  to  me 
an  analogous  instance.  In  the  last  edition  of  this  work  I also  gave 
a case  of  the  regrowth  of  a supernumerary  little-finger  after  ampu- 
tation; but  having  been  informed  by  Dr.  Bachmaier  that  several 
eminent  surgeons  expressed,  at  a meeting  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Munich,  great  doubt  about  my  statements,  I have  made 
more  particular  incpiiries.  The  full  information  thus  gained,  to- 
gether with  a tracing  of  the  hand  in  its  present  state,  has  been  laid 
before  Sir  J.  Paget,  and  he  ha.s  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  de- 
gree of  regrowth  in  this  case  is  not  greater  than  sometimes  occurs 
with  normal  bones,  especially  with  the  humerus,  when  amputated 
at  an  early  age.  He  further  does  not  feel  fully  satisfied  about  the 
facts  recorded  by  Mr.  White.  This  being  so,  it  is  necessary  for  me 
to  withdraw  the  view  which  I formerly  advanced,  with  much  hesi- 
tation, chiefly  on  the  ground  of  the  supposed  regrowth  of  additional 
digits,  namely,  that  their  occasional  development  in  man  is  a case 
of  reversion  to  a lowly  organised  progenitor  pro  /ided  with  more 
than  five  digits. 

I may  here  allude  to  a class  of  facts  closely  allied  to,  but 
somewhat  different  from,  ordinary  cases  of  inheritance.  Sir 
H.  llollanAP^  states  that  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  same 


32  ‘ The  Poultry  Chronicle,’  1854, 
p.  559. 

33  The  statonieuts  in  this  jjaragraph 
are  taken  iroiii  Isidore-  Geoliroy  St. 
Hilaire,  ‘Hist,  des  Anomalies,’  tom.  i. 
pp.  G88-d9d.  Mr.  Goodman  giv^es, 
‘ Phil.  Soc.  of  Cambridge,’  Nov^  25, 
1872,  the  case  of  a cow  with  throe 


well  developed  toes  on  each  hind  limb, 
besides  the  ordinary  rudiments  •,  and 
her  calf  by  an  ordinary  bull  had  , extra 
digits.  ThiS  calf  also  bore  two  calves 
having  extra  digits. 

3'*  ‘ Medical  Notes  and  Reflections,’ 
] 839,  pp.  24,  .34.  See,  also,  Dr.  P 
Lucas,  ‘ L’Hered,  Nat.,’  tom.  ii.  p.  331 


f 


460 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII. 


family  are  froqiiently  affected,  often  at  about  the  same  age, 
by  the  same  peculiar  disease,  not  known  to  have  previously 
occuri’ed  in  the  family.  Ho  specifies  the  occurrence  of  diabetes 
in  three  brothers  under  ten  years  old ; he  also  remarks  that 
childreu  of  the  same  family  often  exhibit,  in  common  infantile 
diseases,  the  same  peculiar  symptoms.  My  father  mentioned 
to  me  the  case  of  four  brothers  who  died  between  the  ages  of 
sixty  and  seventy,  in  the  same  highly  peculiar  comatose  state. 
All  instance  has  already  been  given  of  supernumerary  digits 
appearing  in  four  children  out  of  six  in  a previously  unaftected 
family.  Dr.  Devay  states  that  two  brothers  married  two 
sisters,  their  first-cousins,  none  of  the  four  nor  any  relation 
being  an  albino ; but  the  seven  children  produced  from  this 
double  marriage  were  all  perfect  albinoes.  Some  of  these 
cases,  as  Mr.  Sedgwick  has  shown,  are  probably  the  result 
of  reversion  to  a remote  ancestor,  of  whom  no  record  liad  been 
preserved ; and  all  these  cases  are  so  far  directly  connected 
with  inheritance  that  no  doubt  the  children  inherited  a 
similar  constitution  from  their  parents,  and,  from  being 
exposed  to  nearly  similar  conditions  of  life,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  they  should  be  affected  in  the  same  manner  and  at 
the  same  period  of  life. 

Most  of  the  facts  hitherto  given  have  served  to  illustrate 
the  force  of  inheritance,  but  we  must  now  consider  cases 
grouped  as  well  as  the  subject  allows  into  classes,  shoxving 
how  feeble,  capiicious,  or  deficient  the  power  of  inheritance 
sometimes  is.  When  a new  peculiarity  first  ai)pears,  we  can 
never  pr  edict  whether  it  will  be  inherited.  If  both  parents 
from  their  birth  present  the  same  peculiarity,  the  probability 
is  strong  that  it  will  be  traiif-niitted  to  at  least  some  of  their- 
offspring.  We  have  seen  that  variegation  is  transmitted 
much  moi-e  feebly  by  seed,  taken  from  a branch  which  had 
become  variegated  thr  ough  bud- variation,  than  from  plants 
which  were  variegated  as  seedlings.  With  most  plants  tlie 
power  of  transmission  notoriously  depends  on  some  uinate 

35  ‘ Du  Danger  des  Manages  Con-  Chirurg.  Review,’  July,  1863,  pp. 
saiiguins,’  2nd  edit.,  1862,  p.  103.  183,  189. 

35  ‘ British  and  Foreign  Medico- 


Chap.  XIL 


INHERITANCE. 


461 


capacity  in  the  individual:  thus  Vilmorin  raised  from  a 
peculiarly  coloured  balsam  some  seedlings,  which  all  resembled 
their  parent ; but  of  these  seedlings  some  failed  to  transmit 
tl.e  new  character,  whilst  others  transmitted  it  to  all  their 
descendants  during  several  successive  generations.  So  again 
with  a variety  of  the  rose,  two  plants  alone  out  of  six  weie 
found  by  Vilmorin  to  be  capable  of  transmitting  the  desired 
character;  numerous  analogous  cases  could  be  given. 

The  weeping  or  pendulous  growth  of  trees  is  strongly  inherited 
in  some  cases,  and,  without  any  assignable  reason,  feebly  in  other 
cases.  I have  selected  this  character  as  an  instance  of  capricious 
inheritance,  because  it  is  certainly  not  proper  to  the  parent- species, 
and  because,  both  sexes  being  borne  on  the  same  tree,  both  tend  to 
transmit  the  same  character.  Even  supposing  that  there  may  have 
been  in  some  instances  crossing  with  adjoining  trees  of  the  same 
species,  it  is  not  probable  that  all  the  seedlings  would  have  been 
thus  affected.  At  Moccas  Court  there  is  a famous  weeping  oak ; 
many  of  its  branches  are  30  feet  long,  and  no  thicker  in  any  part 
of  this  length  than  a common  rope  this  tree  transmits  its  weeping 
character,  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  to  all  its  seedlings ; some  of 
the  young  oaks  being  so  flexible  that  they  have  to  be  supported  by 
props ; otliers  not  showing  the  weeping  tendency  till  about  twenty 
years  old.^®  Mr.  Elvers  fertilized,  as  he  informs  me,  the  flowers  of 
a new  Belgian  weeping  thorn  (Cratceyus  oxyacantha)  with  pollen 
from  a crimson  not- weeping  variety,  and  three  young  trees,  “ now 
six  or  seven  years  old,  show  a decided  tendency  to  be  pendulous, 
but  as  yet  are  not  so  much  so  as  the  mother-plant.”  According  to 
Mr.  MacNab,^^  seedlings  from  a magnificent  weeping  birch  (Betula 
alba),  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh,  grew  for  the  first  ten  or 
fifteen  years  upright,  but  then  all  became  weepers  like  their  parent. 
A peach  with  pendulous  branches,  like  those  of  the  weeping  willow, 
has  been  found  capable  of  propagation  by  seed.^°  Lastly,  a weeping 
or  rather  a prostrate  yew  ( Taxus  baccata)  was  found  in  a hedge  in 
Shropshire ; it  was  a male,  but  one  branch  bore  female  flowers,  and 
produced  berries ; these,  being  sown,  produced  seventeen  trees  all 
of  which  had  exactly  the  same  peculiar  habit  with  the  parent- 
tree.^^ 

These  facts,  it  might  have  been  thought,  would  have  been  sufficient 


Verlot,  ‘La  Product,  des  Varie- 
tes,’  1865,  p.  32. 

Loudon’s  ‘ Gard.  Mag.,’  vol.  xh., 
1836,  p.  368. 

Verlot,  ‘ La  Product,  des  Varie- 
U§;  1865,  p.  94. 

■'®  Bronn’s  ‘ Geschichte  der  Natur,’ 
b.  li.  s.  121,  Mr.  Mechau  makes  a 


similar  statement  in  ‘ Proc.  Nat.  of 
Philadelphia,’  1872,  p.  235. 

KeA^  W.  A.  Leighton,  ‘ Flora  of 
Shropshire,’  p.  497 ; and  Charles- 
worth’s  ‘Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,’  vol.  i., 
1837,  p.  30.  I possess  prostrate  trees 
j»roduced  from  these  seeds. 


4G2 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII 


to  render  it  probable  that  a pendulous  liabit  would  in  all  cases  be 
strictly  inherited.  But  let  us  look  to  the  other  side.  Mr.  MaeXab'^^ 
sowed  seeds  (d‘ the  weeping  beech  {Fugus  sylvatica),  but  succeeded 
ill  raising  only  common  beeches.  Mr.  Rivers,  at  my  request,  raised 
a number  of  seedlings  from  throe  distinct  varieties  of  weeping  elm ; 
and  at  least  one  of  the  parent-trees  was  so  situated  that  it  could  not 
have  been  crossed  by  any  other  elm ; but  none  of  the  young  trees, 
now  about  a foot  or  two  in  height,  show  the  least  signs  of  weeping, 
IMr.  Eivers  formerly  sowed  above  twenty  thousand  seeds  of  the 
weeping  ash.  (Fraxmtis  excelsior),  and  not  a single  seedling  was  in 
the  least  degree  pendulous ; in  Germany,  M.  Borchmeyer  raised  a 
thousand  seedlings,  with  the  same  result.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Ander- 
son, of  the  Chelsea  Botanic  Garden,  by  sowing  seed  from  a weeping- 
ash,  which  was  found  before  the  year  1780,  in  Cambridgeshire, 
raised  several  pendulous  trees.^^  Professor  Henslow  also  informs 
me  that  some  seedlings  from  a female  weeping  ash  in  the  Botanic 
Garden  at  Cambridge  were  at  first  a little  pendulous,  but  afterwards 
became  quite  upright:  it  is  probable  that  this  latter  tree,  which 
transmits  to  a certain  extent  its  pendulous  habit,  was  derived  l)y  a 
bad  from  the  same  original  Cambridgeshire  stock;  whilst  other 
weeping  ashes  may  have  had  a distinct  origin.  But  the  crowning- 
case,  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Eivers,  which  shows  how 
capricious  is  the  inheritance  of  a pendulous  habit,  is  that  a variety 
of  another  species  of  ash  {F.  lentiscifolia),  now  about  twenty  years 
old,  which  was  formerly  pendulous,  “ has  long  lost  this  habit,  every 
“ shoot  being  remarkably  erect ; but  seedlings  formerly  raised  from 
“ it  were  perfectly  prostrate,  the  stems  not  rising  more  than  tw^o 
‘‘  inches  above  the  ground.”  Thus  the  weeping  variety  of  the  common 
ash,  which  has  been  extensively  propagated  by  buds  during-  a long 
period,  did  not  with  Mr.  Eivers,  transmit  its  character  to  one  seed- 
ling out  of  above  twenty  thousand  ; whereas  the  weeping  variedy  of 
a second  species  of  ash,  which  could  not,  whilst  grown  in  the  same 
garden,  retain  its  own  weeping  character,  transmitted  to  its  character 
the  pendulous  habit  in  excess ! 

Many  analogous  facts  could  be  given,  showing  how  apparently 
capricious  is  the  principle  of  inheritance.  All  the  seedlings  from  a 
variety  of  the  Barberry  (i?.  vulgaris)  with  red  leaves  inherited  the 
same  character ; only  about  one-third  of  the  seedlings  of  the  copper 
Beech  {Fag us  sylvatica)  had  purple  leaves.  Not  one  out  of  a hundred 
seedlings  of  a variety  of  the  Cerasuspadus,  with  yellow  fruit,  bore  yel  low 
fruit : one-twelfth  of  the  seedlings  of  the  variety  of  Cornus  mo.scida^ 
with  yellow  fruit,  came  true  : and  lastly,  all  the  trees  raised  by  my 
father  from  a yellow-berried  holly  {Ilex  uquifolium),  found  wild, 


Veilot,  op.  cit.,  p.  93. 

For  these  several  statements,  see 
Loudon’s  ‘ Card.  .Magazine,  vol.  x. 
1834,  ]ip.  40S,  180 ; and  vol.  ix., 


1833,  p.  597. 

These  statements  are  taken  from 
De  Candolle,  ‘ Bot.  Goograplu, 
p.  1083. 


UlJAl  . XII 


INHERITANCE. 


4G3 


produced  yellow  berries.  Vilmorin  observed  in  a bed  of  Saponaria 
calahrica  an  extremely  dwarf  variety,  and  raised  from  it  a large 
number  of  seedlings  ; some  of  these  partially  resembled  their  parent, 
and  he  selected  their  seed ; but  the  grandchildren  were  not  in  the 
least  dwarfed : on  the  other  hand,  he  observed  a stunted  and  bushy 
variety  of  Tagetes  signata  growing  in  the  midst  of  the  common 
varieties  by  which  it  was  probably  crossed ; for  most  of  the  seedlings 
raised  from  this  plant  were  intermediate  in  character,  ouly  two 
perfectly  resembling  their  parent ; but  seed  saved  from  these  two 
plants  reproduced  the  new  variety  so  truly,  that  hardly  any  selection 
has  since  been  necessary. 

Flowers  transmit  their  colour  truly,  or  most  capriciously.  Many 
annuals  come  true : thus  I purchased  German  seeds  of  thirty -four 
named  sub- varieties  of  one  race  of  ten- week  stocks  (^Matthiold 
annua),  and  raised  a hundred  and  forty  plants,  all  of  which,  with 
the  exception  of  a single  plant,  came  true.  In  saying  this,  however, 
it  must  be  understood  that  I could  distinguish  only  t’srenty  kinds 
out  of  the  thirty-four  named  sub-A’^arieties ; nor  did  the  colonr  of 
the  flower  always  correspond  Avith  the  name  affixed  to  the  packet ; 
but  I say  that  they  came  true,  because  in  each  of  the  thirty-six 
short  roAA^s  every  plant  was  absolutely  alike,  with  the  one  single 
exception.  Again,  I procured  packets  of  German  seed  of  tAventy- 
five  named  A^arieties  of  common  and  quilled  asters,  and  raised  a 
hundred  and  tAventy-four  plants ; of  these,  all  except  ten  were  true 
in  the  above  limited  sense ; and  I considered  even  a Avrong  shade  of 
colour  as  false. 

It  is  a singular  circumstance  that  Avhite  varieties  generally 
transmit  their  colour  much  more  truly  than  any  other  variety. 
This  fact  probably  stands  in  close  relation  with  one  observed  by 
Verlot,^®  namely,  that  flowers  which  are  normally  white  rarely  vary 
into  any  other  colour.  I have  found  that  the  white  varieties  of 
J)elphinium  coruiolida^  and  of  the  Stock  are  the  truest.  It  is,  indeed, 
sufficient  to  look  through  a nurseryman  s seed-list,  to  see  the  large 
number  of  Avhite  varieties  Avhich  can  be  propagated  by  seed.  The 
several  coloured  varieties  of  the  SAveet-pea  {Lathy r us  odoratus)  are 
very  true ; but  I hear  from  Mr.  Masters,  of  Canterbury,  who  has 
particularly  attended  to  this  plant,  that  the  white  variety  is  the 
truest.  The  hyacinth,  when  propagated  by  seed,  is  extremely 
inconstant  in  colour,  but  “ Avhite  hyacinths  almost  always  give  by 
seed  white-floAA^ered  plants  and  Mr.  Masters  informs  me 
that  the  yelloAv  varieties  also  reproduce^  their  colour,  but  of  different 
shades.  On  the  other  hand,  pink  and  blue  varieties,  the  latter  being 
the  natural  colour,  are  not  nearly  so  true  : hence,  as  Mr.  Masters  has 
remarked  to  me,  ‘‘  Ave  see  that  a garden  variety  may  acquire  a more 
permanent  habit  than  a natural  species ; ” but  it  should  have  been 
added,  that  this  occurs  under  cultivation,  and  therefore  under 
changed  conditions. 

Alph.'  De  Candolle,  ‘ Gdogiaph. 
Bot.,’  p.  1082. 


V'erlot,  op.  cit.,  p.  38. 
Op.  cit.,  p.  59. 


404  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  Xll 

Witli  many  flowers,  especially  perennials,  nothin"  can  be  more 
fluctuating  than  the  colour  of  the  seedlings,  as  is  notoriously  the 
case  with  verbenas,  carnations,  dahlias,  cinerarias,  and  others."*®  I 
sowed  seed  of  twelve  named  varieties  of  Snapdragon  {Antirrhinum 
majas),  and  utter  confusion  was  the  result.  In  most  cases  the 
extremely  fluctuating  colour  of  seedling  plants  is  probably  in  chief 
part  due  to  crosses  between  differentiy-coloured  varieties  during 
previous  generations.  It  is  almost  certain  that  this  is  the  case  with 
the  polyanthus  and  coloured  primrose  {Fririiida  veris  and  vaUjarifi), 
from  their  reciprocally  dimorphic  structure;  and  these  are  plants 
which  florists  speak  of  as  never  coming  true  by  seed : but  if  care  be 
taken  to  prevent  crossing,  neither  species  is  by  any  means  very 
inconstant  in  colour;  thus  I raised  twenty-three  plants  from  a 
purple  primrose,  fertilised  by  Mr.  J.  Scott  with  its  pollen,  and 
eighteen  came  up  purple  of  ditferent  shades,  and  only  five  reverted 
to  the  ordinary  yellow  colour:  again,  I raised  twenty  plants  from  a 
bright-red  cowslip,  similarly  treated  by  Mr.  Scott,  and  every  one 
perfectly  resembled  its  parent  in  colour,  as  likewise  did,  with  the 
exception  of  a single  plant,  72  grandchildren.  Even  with  the 
most  variable  flowers,  it  is  probable  that  each  delicate  shade  of 
colour  might  be  permanently  fixed  so  as  to  be  transmitted  by  seed, 
by  cultivation  in  the  same  soil,  by  long-continued  selection,  and 
especially  by  the  prevention  of  crosses.  I infer  this  from  certain 
annual  larkspurs  {Del'phirdum  consoUda  and  ajacis),  of  which  common 
seedlings  present  a greater  diversity  of  colour  than  any  other  plant 
known  to  me ; yet  on  procuring  seed  of  five  named  German  varieties 
of  D.  consoUda,  only  nine  plants  out  of  ninety-four  were  false  ; and 
the  seedlings  of  six  varieties  of  D.  ajacis  were  true  in  the  same 
manner  and  degree  as  with  the  stocks  above  described.  A dis- 
tinguished botanist  maintains  that  the  annual  species  of  Delphinium 
are  always  self-fertilised ; therefore  I may  mention  that  thirty-twc 
flowers  on  a branch  of  D.  consoUda,  enclosed  in  a net,  yielded  twenty- 
seven  capsules,  with  an  average  of  17’2  seed  in  each ; whilst  five 
flowers,  under  the  same  net,  which  were  artificially  fertilised,  in  the 
same  manner  as  must  be  effected  by  bees  during  their  incessant 
visits,  yielded  five  capsules  with  an  average  of  35-2  fine  seed  ; and 
this  shows  that  tlie  agency  of  insects  is  necessary  for  the  full 
fertility  of  this  plant.  Analogous  facts  could  be  given  with  respect 
to  the  crossing  of  many  other  flowers,  such  as  carnations,  &c.,  of 
wl  ich  the  varieties  fluctuate  much  in  colour. 

As  with  flowers,  so  with  our  domesticated  animals, no  character  is 
more  variable  than  colour,  and  probably  in  no  animal  more  so  than 
with  the  horse.  Yet,  with  a little  care  in  breeding,  it  appears  that 
races  of  any  colour  might  soon  be  formed.  Hofacker  gives  the  result 
of  matching  two  hundred  and  sixteen  mares  of  four  different  colours 


See  ‘Cottage  Gardener,’  April  Darwin,  in  ‘Journal  of  Proc. 

XO,  1860,  p.  18,  and  Sept.  10,  1861,  Linn.  Soc.  Bot.’  1862,  p.  04. 
p.  456*  ‘Card.  Chron.,’  1845,  p.  102. 

f 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


465 


with  like-coloured  stallions,  without  regard  to  the  colour  of  their 
ancestors ; and  of  the  two  hundred  and  sixteen  colts  born,  eleven 
alone  failed  to  inherit  the  colour  of  their  parents : Autenrieth  and 
Ammon  assert  that,  after  two  generations,  colts  of  a uniform  colour 
are  produced  with  certainty. 

In  a few  rare  cases  peculiarities  fail  to  be  inherited,  appa- 
rently from  the  force  of  inheritance  being  too  strong.  I 
have  been  assured  by  breeders  of  the  canary-bird  that  to  get 
a good  jonquil-coloured  bird  it  does  not  answer  to  pair  two 
jonquils,  as  the  colour  then  comes  out  too  strong,  or  is  even 
bro\^‘n  ; but  this  statement  is  disputed  by  other  breeders.  So 
again,  if  two  crested  canaries  are  paired,  the  young  birds 
rarely  inherit  this  character : for  in  crested  birds  a narrow 
space  of  bare  skin  is  left  on  the  back  of  the  head,  where  the 
feathers  are  up-turned  to  form  the  crest,  and,  when  both 
parents  are  thus  characterised,  the  bareness  becomes  exces- 
sive, and  the  crest  itself  fails  to  be  developed.  Mr.  Hewitt, 
speaking  of  Laced  Sebright  Bantams,  says  that,  “ why  this 
should  be  so  I know  not,  but  I am  confident  that  those  that 
are  best  laced  frequently  produce  offspring  very  far  from 
perfect  in  their  markings,  whilst  those  exhibited  by  myself, 
which  have  so  often  proved  successful,  were  bred  from  the 
union  of  heavily-laced  birds  with  those  that  were  scarcely 
sufficiently  laced.” 

It  is  a singular  fact  that,  although  several  deaf-mutes  often 
occur  in  the  same  family,  and  though  their  cousins  and  other 
relations  are  often  in  the  same  condition,  yet  their  parents  are 
rarely  deaf-mutes.  To  give  a single  instance  ; not  one  scholar 
out  of  148,  who  were  at  the  same  time  in  the  London  Institu- 
tion, was  the  child  of  parents  similarly  affected.  So  again, 
when  a male  or  female  deaf-mute  marries  a sound  person, 
their  children  are  most  rarely. affected  ; in  Ireland,  out  of  203 
children  thus  produced  one  alone  was  mute.  Even  when 
both  parents  have  been  deaf-mutes,  as  in  the  case  of  forty-one 
marriages  in  the  United  States  and  of  six  in  Ireland,  only 

Hofacker,  ‘ Ueber  die  Eigen-  that  he  believes  that  these  statements 
schaften,’  &c.,  s.  10.  are  correct. 

Bechstein, ‘Naturgesch.Deutsch-  ‘The  Poultry  Book,’  by  W.  B. 

lands,’  b.  iv.  s.  462.  Mr.  Brent,  a Tegetmeier,  1866,  p.  245. 
great  breeder  of  canaries,  informs  me 

31 


466 


INHERITANOK. 


Cjiap.  XU 


two  deaf  and  dumb  children  were  produced.  Mr.  Sedgwick, 
in  commenting  on  this  remarkable  and  fortunate  failure  in 
the  power  of  transmission  in  the  direct  line,  remarks  that  it 
juay  possibly  bo  owing  to  “ excess  having  reversed  the  action 
of  some  natural  law  in  development.”  But  it  is  safer  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  to  look  at  the  whole  case  as 
simply  unintelligible. 

Although  many  congenital  monstrosities  are  inherited,  of 
which  examples  have  already  been  given,  and  to  which  may 
be  added  the  lately  recorded  case  of  the  transmission  during 
a century  of  hare-lip  with  a cleft-palate  in  the  writer’s  own 
family,^^  yet  other  malformations  are  rarely  or  never  inherited. 
Of  these  latter  cases,  many  are  probably  due  to  injuries  in 
the  womb  or  egg,  and  would  come  under  the  head  of  non- 
inherited  injuries  or  mutilations.  With  plants,  a long  cata- 
logue of  inherited  monstrosities  of  the  most  serious  and 
diversified  nature  could  easily  be  given ; and  with  plants, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  monstrosities  are  caused 
by  direct  injuries  to  the  seed  or  embryo. 


With  respect  to  the  inheritance  of  structures  mutilated  by 
injuries  or  altered  by  disease,  it  was  until  lately  difficult  to 
come  to  any  definite  conclusion.  Some  mutilations  have  been 
practised  for  a vast  number  of  generations  without  any  in- 
herited result.  Godron  remarks  that  different  races  of  man 
have  from  time  immemorial  knocked  out  their  upper  incisors, 
cut  off  joints  of  their  fingers,  made  holes  of  immense  size 
through  the  lobes  of  their  ears  or  through  their  nostrils, 
tatooed  themselves,  made  deep  gashes  in  various  parts  of  their 
bodies,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  these  mutila- 
tions have  ever  been  inherited.^®  Adhesions  due  to  in- 


‘ British  and  Foreign  Med.- 
Chirurg.  Review,’  July,  1861,  pf. 
200-204.  Mr.  Sedgwick  has  given 
such  fr.ll  details  on  this  subject,  with 
ample  references,  that  I need  refer 
to  no  other  authorities. 

Mr.  Sproule,  in  ‘ British  Medical 
Journal,’  April  18,  1863. 

” ‘ De  I’Espbce,’  tom.  ii.,  1859,  p. 
299. 


Nevertheless  Mr.Wetherell  states, 
‘Nature,’  Dec.  1870,  p.  168,  that 
when  he  visited  fifteen  years  ago  the 
Sioux  Indians,  he  was  informed  “ by 
a physician,  who  has  passed  much  of 
his  time  with  these  tribes,  that  some- 
times a child  was  born  with  these 
marks.  This  was  confirmed  by  the 
IJ.  S.  Government  Indian  Agent.” 


Chap.  XII. 


INHEKITANCE. 


467 


flammation  and  pits  from  the  small  - pox  (and  formerly 
many  consecutive  generations  must  have  been  thus  pitted) 
are  not  inherited.  With  respect  to  Jews,  I have  been  assured 
by  three  medical  men  of  the  Jewish  faith  that  circumcision, 
which  has  been  practised  for  so  many  ages,  has  produced  no 
inherited  effect.  Blumenbach,  however,  asserts  that  Jews 
are  often  born  in  Germany  in  a condition  rendering  circum- 
cision difficult,  so  that  a name  is  given  them  signifying  born 
circumcised ; ” and  Professor  Preyer  informs  me  that  this  is 
the  case  in  Bonn,  such  children  being  considered  the  special 
favourites  of  Jehovah.  I have  also  heard  from  Dr.  A.  Newman, 
of  Guy’s  Hospital,  of  the  grandson  of  a circumcised  Jew,  the 
father  not  having  been  circumcised,  in  a similar  condition.  But 
it  is  possible  that  all  these  cases  may  be  accidental  coincidences, 
for  Sir  J.  Paget  has  seen  five  sons  of  a lady  and  one  son  of 
her  sister  with  adherent  prepuces ; and  one  of  these  boys  was 
affected  in  a manner  “ which  might  be  considered  like  that 
commonly  produced  by  circumcision;”  yet  there  was  no 
suspicion  of  Jewish  blood  in  the  family  of  these  two  sisters. 
Circumcision  is  practised  by  Mahomedans,  but  at  a much 
later  age  than  by  Jews  ; and  Dr.  Eiedel,  Assistant  Resident 
in  North  Celebes,  writes  to  me  that  the  boys  there  go  naked 
until  from  six  to  ten  years  old ; and  he  has  observed  that 
many  of  them,  though  not  all,  have  their  prepuces  much 
reduced  in  length,  and  this  he  attributes  to  the  inherited 
effects  of  the  operation.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom  oaks  and 
other  trees  have  borne  galls  from  primeval  times,  yet  they 
do  not  produce  inherited  excrescences ; and  many  other  such 
facts  could  be  adduced. 

Notwithstanding  the  above  several  negative  cases,  we 
now  possess  conclusive  evidence  that  the.effects  of  operations 
are  sometimes  inherited.  Dr.  Brown-Sequard  gives  the 
following  summary  of  his  observations  on  guinea-pigs  ; and 
this  summary  is  so  important  that  I will  quote  the  whole ; — 


‘Philosoph.  Mag.’  vol.  iv.,  1799, 

p.  5. 

‘ Proc.  Royal  Soc.,’  vol.  x.  p. 
297.  ‘ Communication  to  the  Brit. 

Assoc  1870.  ‘ The  Lancet,’  Jan. 


1875,  p.  7.  The  extracts  are  from 
this  last  paper.  It  appears  that 
Obersteiner,  ‘ Strieker’s  Med.  Jahr* 
bticher,’  1875,  No.  2,  has  confirmea 
Brown-Sequard’s  observati  ms 


468 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XIL 


“ 1st.  Appearance  of  epilepsy  in  animals  born  ol  parents  having 
beim  rendered  epileptic  by  an  injury  to  the  spinal  cord. 

2nd.  Appearance  of  epilepsy  also  in  animals  born  of  parents 
having  been  rendered  epileptic  by  the  section  of  the  sciatic  nerve. 

“ 3ri  A change  in  the  shape  of  the  ear  in  animals  boi-n  of  parents 
in  which  such  a change  was  the  effect  of  a division  of  the  cervical 
sympathetic  nerve. 

‘'4th.  Partial  closure  of  the  eyelids  in  animals  born  of  parents  in 
wliich  that  state  of  the  eyelids  had  been  caused  either  by  the 
section  of  the  cervical  sympathetic  nerve  or  the  removal  of  tho 
superior  cervical  ganglion. 

“ 5th.  Exophthalmia  in  animals  born  of  parents  in  which  an  injury 
to  the  restiform  body  had  produced  that  protrusion  of  the  eyeball. 
This  interesting  fact  I have  witnessed  a good  many  times,  and  I 
have  seen  the  transmission  of  the  morbid  state  of  the  eye  continue 
through  four  generations.  In  these  animals,  modified  by  heredity, 
the  two  eyes  generally  xjrotruded,  although  in  the  parents  usually 
only  one  showed  exophthalmia,  the  lesion  having  been  made  in  most 
cases  only  on  one  of  the  corpora  restiformia. 

“ 6th.  Hoematoma  and  dry  gangrene  of  the  eara  in  animals  born  of 
parents  in  which  these  ear- alterations  had  been  caused  by  an  injury 
to  the  restiform  body  near  the  nib  of  the  calamus. 

“ 7th.  Absence  of  two  toes  out  of  the  three  of  the  hind  leg,  and 
sometimes  of  the  three,  in  animals  whose  parents  had  eaten  up  their 
hind- leg  toes  which  had  become  ansesthetic  from  a section  of  the 
sciatic  nerve  alone,  or  of  that  nerve  and  also  of  the  crural.  Some- 
times, instead  of  complete  absence  of  the  toes,  only  a part  of  one  or 
two  or  three  was  missing  in  the  young,  although  in  the  parent  not 
only  the  toes  but  the  whole  foot  was  absent  (partly  eaten  off,  partly 
destroyed  by  inflammation,  ulceration,  or  gangrene). 

“ 8th.  Appearance  of  various  morbid  states  of  the  skin  and  hair  of 
the  neck  and  face  in  animals  born  of  parents  having  had  similar 
alterations  in  the  same  parts,  as  effects  of  an  injury  to  the  sciatic 
nerve.’" 

It  should  be  especially  observed  that  Brown-Sequard  has 
bred  during  thirty  years  many  thousand  guinea-pigs  from 
animals  which  had  not  been  operated  upon,  and  not  one  of 
these  manifested  the  epileptic  tendency.  Nor  has  lie  ever 
seen  a guinea-pig  born  without  toes,  which  was  not  the 
offspring  of  parents  which  had  gnawed  off  their  own  toes 
owing  to  the  sciatic  nerve  having  been  divided.  Of  this 
latter  fact  thirteen  instances  were  carefully  recorded,  and  a 
greater  number  were  seen;  yet  Brown-Sequard  speaks  of 
such  cases  as  one  of  the  rarer  forms  of  inheritance.  It  is  a 
still  more  interesting  fact — 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


469 


“That  the  sciatic  nerve  in  the  congenitally  toeless  animal  has 
inherited  the  power  of  passing  through  all  the  different  morbid  states 
which  have  occurred  in  one  of  its  parents  from  the  time  of  the  division 
till  after  its  reunion  with  the  peripheric  end.  It  is  not  therefore 
simply  the  power  of  performing  an  action  which  is  inherited,  but 
the  power  of  performing  a whole  series  of  actions,  in  a certain  order.” 

In  most  of  the  cases  of  inheritance  recorded  by  Brown-Se- 
quard  only  one  of  the  t’wo  parents  had  been  operated  upon 
and  was  affected.  He  concludes  by  expressing  his  belief  that 
“ what  is  transmitted  is  the  morbid  state  of  the  nervous 
system,”  due  to  the  operation  performed  on  the  parents. 

With  the  lower  animals  Dr.  Proper  Lucas  has  collected  a 
long  list  of  inherited  injuries.  A few  instances  will  suffice. 
A cow  lost  a horn  from  an  accident  with  consequent  suppur- 
ation, and  she  produced  three  calves  which  were  hornless  on 
the  same  side  of  the  head.  With  the  horse,  there  seems 
hardly  a doubt  that  exostoses  on  the  legs,  caused  by  too 
much  travelling  on  hard  roads,  are  inherited.  Blumen- 
bach  records  the  case  of  a man  who  had  his  little  finger  on 
the  right  hand  almost  cut  off,  and  wffiich  in  consequence 
grew  crooked,  and  his  sons  had  the  same  finger  on  the  same 
hand  similarly  crooked.  A soldier,  fifteen  years  before  his 
marriage,  lost  his  left  eye  from  purulent  ophthalmia,  and  his 
two  sons  were  microphthalmic  on  the  same  side.^®  In  all 
cases  in  which  a parent  has  had  an  organ  injured  on  one 
side,  and  two  or  more  of  the  offspring  are  born  with  the 
same  organ  affected  on  the  same  side,  the  chances  against 
mere  coincidence  are  almost  infinitely  great.  Even  when 
only  a single  child  is  born  having  exactly  the  same  part  of 
the  body  afiected  as  that  of  his  injured  parent,  the  chances 
against  coincidence  are  great ; and  Professor  Eolleston  has 
given  me  twm  such  cases  which  have  fallen  under  his  own 
observation, — namely  of  two  men,  one  of  whom  had  his  knee 
and  the  other  his  cheek  severely  cut,  and  both  had  children 


This  last  case  is  quoted  by  Mr. 
Sedgwick  in  ‘ British  and  Foreign 
Medico-Chirurg.  Review,’  April,  1861, 
p.  484.  For  Blumenbach,  see  above- 
cited  paper.  See,  also, -Dr.  P.  Lncas, 
‘Traite  de  I’Hered.  Nat.,’  tom.  ii.  p. 
492.  Also,  ‘ Transact.  Linn.  Soc.,’  vol. 


IX.  p.  323.  Some  curious  cases  are 
given  by  Mr.  Baker  in  the  ‘Veterinary,’ 
vol.  xiii.  p.  723.  Another  curious 
case  is  given  in  the  ‘Annales  des 
Scienc.  Nat.,’  1st  series,  tom.  xi.  p. 
324. 


470 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII 


born  with  exactly  the  same  spot  marked  or  scarred.  Many 
instances  have  been  recorded  of  cats,  dogs,  and  hofses,  which 
have  had  their  tails,  legs,  &c.,  amputated  or  injured,  produc- 
ing offspring  with  the  same  parts  ill-formed ; but  as  it  is  not 
very  rare  for  similar  malformations  to  appear  spontaneously, 
all  such  cases  may  be  due  to  coincidence.  It  is,  however,  an 
argument  on  the  other  side  that  “ under  the  old  excise  laws 
“ the  shepherd-dog  was  only  exempt  from  tax  when  without 
“ a tail,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  always  removed  ; ” and 
there  still  exist  breeds  of  the  shepherd-dog  which  are  always 
born  destitute  of  a tail.  Finally,  it  must  be  admitted,  more 
especially  since  the  publication  of  Brown-Sequard’s  observa- 
tions, that  the  effects  of  injuries,  especially  when  followed  by 
disease,  or  perhaps  exclusively  when  thus  followed,  are 
occasionally  inherited.®^ 


Causes  of  Non-inheritance. 

A large  number  of  cases  of  non-inheritance  are  intelligible 
on  the  principle,  that  a strong  tendency  to  inheritance  does 
exist,  but  that  it  is  overborne  by  hostile  or  unfavourable 
conditions  of  life.  No  (me  would  expect  that  our  improved 
pigs,  if  forced  during  several  generations  to  travel  about  and 
root  in  the  ground  for  their  own  subsistence,  would  transmit, 
as  truly  as  they  now  do  their  short  muzzles  and  legs,  and 
their  tendency  to  fatten.  Dray-horses  assuredly  would  not 
long  transmit  their  great  size  and  massive  limbs,  if  compelled 
to  live  on  a cold,  damp  mountainous  region ; we  have  indeed 
evidence  of  such  deterioration  in  the  horses  which  have  run 
wild  on  the  Falkland  Islands.  European  dogs  in  India  often 
fail  to  transmit  their  true  character.  Our  sheep  in  tropical 
countries  lose  their  wool  in  a few  generations.  There  seems 
also  to  be  a close  relation  between  certain  peculiar  pastures 
and  the  inheritance  of  an  enlarged  tail  in  fat- tailed  sheep. 


'60  ‘The  Dog,’  by  Stonehenge,  1867, 

p.  118. 

The  Mot-mot  habitually  bites 
the  barbs  off  the  middle  part  of  the 
two  central  tail-feathei*s,  and  as  the 
barbs  are  congenitally  somewhat 


reduced  on  the  same  part  of  these 
feathers,  it  seems  extremely  probable, 
as  Mr.  Salvin  remarks  (‘  Proc.  Zoolog. 
Soc.’  1873,  p.  429),  that  this  is  due  to 
the  inherited  ellbcts  of  long-continued 
mutilation. 


Chap.  XIL 


NON-INHERITANCE. 


471 


which  form  one  of  the  most  ancient  breeds  in  the  world. 
With  plants,  we  have  seen  that  tropical  varieties  of  maize 
lose  their  proper  character  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
generations,  when  cultivated  in  Europe ; and  conversely  so 
it  is  with  European  varieties  cultivated  in  Brazil.  Our 
cabbages,  which  here  come  so  true  by  seed,  cannot  form  heads 
in  hot  countries.  According  to  Carriere,^^  the  purple-leafed 
beech  and  barberry  transmit  their  character  by  seed  far  less 
truly  in  certain  districts  than  in  others,  ynder  changed 
circumstances,  periodical  habits  of  life  soon  fail  to  be  trans- 
mitted, as  the  period  of  maturity  in  summer  and  winter 
wheat,  barley,  and  vetches.  So  it  is  with  animals  : for 
instance,  a person,  whose  statement  I can  trust,  procured  eggs 
of  Aylesbury  ducks  from  that  t.own,  where  they  are  kept  in 
houses  and  are  reared  as  early  as  possible  for  the  London 
market ; the  ducks  bred  from  these  eggs  in  a distant  part  of 
England,  hatched  their  first  brood  on  January  24th,  whilst 
common  ducks,  kept  in  the  same  yard  and  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  did  not  hatch  till  the  end  of  March ; and  this 
shows  that  the  period  of  hatching  was  inherited.  But  the 
grandchildren  of  these  Aylesbury  ducks  completely  lost  their 
habit  of  early  incubation,  and  hatched  their  eggs  at  the 
same  time  with  the  common  ducks  of  the  same  place. 

Many  cases  of  non-inheritance  apparently  result  from  the 
conditions  of  life  continually  inducing  fresh  variability.  We 
have  seen  that  when  the  seeds  of  pears,  plums,  apples,  &c., 
are  sown,  the  seedlings  generally  inherit  some  degree  of 
family  likeness.  Mingled  with  these  seedlings,  a few,  and 
sometimes  many,  worthless,  wild-looking  plants  commonly 
appear,  and  their  appearance  may  be  attributed  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  reversion.  But  scarcely  a single  seedling  will  be 
found  perfectly  to  resemble  the  parent-form ; and  this  may 
bo  accounted  for  by  constantly  recurring  variability  induced 
by  the  conditions  of  life.  1 believe  in  this,  because  it  has 
been  observed  that  certain  fruit-trees  truly  propagate  their 
kind  whilst  growing  on  their  own  roots ; but  when  grafted  on 
other  stocks,  and  by  this  process  their  natural  state  is  mani- 
festly affected,  they  produce  seedlings  which  vary  greatly, 
‘ Production  et  Fixation  des  Varietes,’  18G5,  p.  72. 


472 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII, 


departing  from  the  parental  type  in  many  cliaracters.^^^ 
Metzger,  as  stated  in  the  ninth  chapter,  found  that  certain 
kinds  of  wheat  brought  from  Spain  and  cultivated  in 
Germany,  failed  during  many  years  to  reproduce  themselves 
truly ; but  at  last,  when  accustomed  to  their  new  conditions, 
tiiey  ceased  to  be  variable, — that  is,  they  became  amenable 
to  the  power  of  inheritance.  Nearly  all  the  plants  which 
cannot  be  propagated  with  any  approach  to  certainty  by  seed, 
are  kinds  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  buds,  cuttings, 
otfsets,  tubers,  &c.,  and  have  in  consequence  been  frequently 
exposed  during  what  may  be  called  their  individual  lives  to 
widely  diversified  conditions  of  life.  Plants  thus  propagated 
become  so  variable,  that  they  are  subject,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  last  chapter,  even  to  bud-variation.  Our  domesticated 
animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  commonly  exposed  during 
the  life  of  the  individual  to  such  extremely  diversified  con- 
ditions, and  are  not  liable  to  such  extreme  variability ; there- 
fore they  do  not  lose  the  power  of  transmitting  most  of  their 
characteristic  features.  In  the  foregoing  remarks  on  non- 
inheritance, crossed  breeds  are  of  course  excluded,  as  their 
diversity  mainty  depends  on  the  unequal  development  of 
character  derived  from  either  parent  or  their  ancestors. 

Conclusion. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  how  com- 
monly new  characters  of  the  most  diversified  nature,  whether 
normal  or  abnormal,  injurious  or  beneficial,  whether  affecting 
organs  of  the  highest  or  most  trifling  importance,  are  in- 
herited. It  is  often  sufficient  for  the  inheritance  of  some 
peculiar  character,  that  one  parent  alone  should  possess  it,  as 
in  most  cases  in  which  the  rarer  anomalies  have  been  trans- 
mitted. But  the  power  of  transmission  is  extremely  variable. 
In  a number  of  individuals  descended  from  the  same  parents, 
and  treated  in  the  same  manner,  some  display  this  power  in 
a perfect  manner,  and  in  some  it  is  quite  deficient ; and  for 
this  difference  no  reason  can  be  assigned.  The  effects  of 
injuries  or  mutilations  are  occasionally  inherited;  and  we 

Downing,  ‘ Fruits  of  America,’  p.  5 : Sagcret,  ‘ Pom.  Phys.,’  pp.  43,  72. 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


473 


shall  see  in  a future  chapter  that  the  long- continued  use  and 
disuse  of  parts  produces  an  inherited  effect.  Even  those  cha- 
racters which  are  considered  the  most  fluctuating,  such  as 
colour,  are  with  rare  exceptions  transmitted  much  more 
forcibly  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  wonder,  indeed,  in 
all  cases  is  not  that  any  character  should  be  transmitted,  but 
that  the  power  of  inheritance  should  ever  fail.  The  checks  to 
inheritance,  as  far  as  we  know  them,  are,  firstly,  circumstances 
hostile  to  the  particular  character  in  question ; secondly,  con- 
ditions of  life  incessantly  inducing  fresh  variability ; and 
lastly,  the  crossing  of  distinct  varieties  during  some  previous 
generation,  together  with  reversion  or  atavism — that  is,  the 
tendency  in  the  child  to  resemble  its  grand-parents  or  more 
remote  ancestors  instead  of  its  immediate  parents.  This  latter 
subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  chapter. 


END  OF  VOL.  !<, 


D 


V: 


1 


Jk 


% 


1 


<'&■ 

y> 


I 


i-f  m 


•Vvr-  V 

"'•X 


'’**••■  % ■ *‘  ' ^ 


' -'h  i'  4' ’■;•  / ^ Ax 


A- 


X 


4;:  a.  ■ ^:.  -I-  a'  ‘-v:*-'-. 

k ■-  i f. . ...  . C;- 

I'-  ^:  ' 'A:X  .X'  ‘^Xi 


■'  '.-'V 


s/MDiNi#  i.isr 


/ 

I 


QH 

365 


V2 


1897 

v.l 


BioMeJ 


Darvrln,  Charles  Robert 

The  variation  of  animals 


PLEASE  DO  NOT  REMOVE 
CARDS  OR  SLIPS  FROM  THIS  POCKET 


UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY